THE CONTENTS OF THIS PAGE
THE CRAFT OF MUSICAL COMMUNICATION - PART ONE
"THE CRAFT" AS IT APPEARED IN ORPHEI ORGANI ANTIQUI
THE CRAFT OF
MUSICAL COMMUNICATION
PART ONE
By Marianne Ploger & Keith Hill
© 2015
INTRODUCTION
We present this essay in two parts because each part is a distinct aspect of the Craft of Musical Communication, each of which relies wholly on the other to "work." One aspect is not more important than the other. Each depends on the other to project the full force of which they are both capable, for producing performances of music meant to inspire listeners.
The first two movements, Largo and Allegro, from the sonata in F minor by Joachim Bernhard Hagen. Performed by Robert Barto at the June 2012 Lute Society of America summer festival in Cleveland OH. 13 course baroque lute by Andrew Rutherford
A BRIEF NOTE ABOUT LISTENERS
It might be interesting for you to know that the techniques and concepts presented here have been tested with musicians and listeners, as well as with what can only be called "hostile listeners"--the ones who profess a strong antagonism to classical music. When the techniques were used while playing the music during our presentations, the result for musicians was mixed; about 95% of the musicians loved the way the music felt, and 5% of the musicians hated what they thought violated their strict notion of how music ought to go and were openly antagonistic to the techniques. For listeners who were not musically trained, 100% felt inspired by the result, and for the hostile listeners, 100% were pleasantly surprised by what they heard. During the performances, it seems, hostile listeners discovered that the problem they had with classical music was the way it was played, not the music itself, nor their relative ignorance of that kind of music.
What we have found is that hostile listeners are incredibly smart and perceptive in that they have no patience for listening to music played in a manner that doesn't communicate. Furthermore, when these disinterested, hostile listeners were asked to tell the performers what they needed to do to the music to make that music work for them, and when the performers responded in a loving and compliant manner to accede to their suggestions, the so-called hostile listeners responded with cheers for the players and the music, some saying that the performances brought them to tears...which is the real point behind playing great music...isn't it? Invariably, the listeners were in total agreement about what the players needed to do to make the music "come alive" for them and, equally invariably, every suggestion they made was almost word for word what we have presented below in the first part: the art of delivery.
These experiences/experiments can be and ought to be reproduced by anyone who is truly serious about learning the craft of musical communication, if only to have the force of proof to give him or her the confidence to absolutely know that these techniques and concepts work just as we say they do. It is not enough to take them on faith. They must be tested with listeners of all kinds. However, care must be taken in dealing with trained musicians, as they tend to be too prejudiced due to indoctrination in the current musically sterile style of playing classical music, a way of playing in which these techniques are almost nowhere to be found.
Why the hostility and antagonism between classically trained musicians and hostile listeners? We suspect that the hostility on both sides is due to a misunderstanding of each about the other. Too many classically trained musicians tend to dismiss normal, ordinary people as being crass and unsophisticated in their musical tastes and therefore not worth bothering with as listeners. And these listeners tend to write off classical musicians as being out of touch, indifferent, snobbish, solipsistic, and effete and therefore not worth listening to. This current environment surrounding classical music is tragic because the music was designed to express, in many cases, deep and intense love, and it used to be performed lovingly and engagingly for the enjoyment of everyone.
THE “SOURCES” OF THIS ANTIPATHY FOR CLASSICAL MUSIC TODAY ?
Nowadays, believe it or not, classical music is associated with fear and especially evil in our cultural cliche's. In movies, for example, perhaps the most influential because of its ability to create and communicate cultural norms, villains are too often seen listening to classical music as they order the torture and murder of their victims. Classical musicians are often depicted as egotistical, self centered, solipsistic curs totally lacking in compassion, common sense, or both; and violence, mayhem, and giant explosions are too often depicted with some of the greatest classical music ever written. This Youtube video below made in Britain explicitly demonstrates the veracity of our claims regarding this connection.
Perhaps, if doctors were depicted in the movies doing evil acts to acid rock music, it would not be long before people would associate in their imaginations having a doctor doing something evil to them every time they hear acid rock music. People would soon come to fear doctors and detest acid rock music. It is not the music or the villains depicted but the coupling of them with evil that has taken its toll on alienating people from classical music.
Though in all fairness it should be said that this association has been facilitated by the ubiquitous imposition of strict performance standards characterized principally by absolute metronomic regularity adopted by a majority of classical musicians over the last 75 years. Those musicians were and still are responsible for enforcing notions of acceptable performance standards on other musicians that have resulted in classical music being played in a wooden, unmusical, highly mannered style. This style includes: playing in a strict metrical manner (to replace real rhythm), perfect evenness of line (to replace the flow of musical thought), and tightness of ensemble (to replace real listening by members of the ensembles). All are practices that result in music that communicates the affects of coldness, indifference to suffering, machine-like behavior, scolding, anger and the like. Arnold Schönberg bemoaned this ironing-out behavior in his article titled, "Today's Manner of Playing Classical Music", back in 1948 because he was so disturbed by this "sterilizing" trend of liquidating all expression from music.
If that weren't bad enough, and to top it off with a massive dose of irony, these musicians actually blame the music loving public for not supporting their anti-aesthetic performances. It is the musicians themselves who have purposefully and intentionally sought to sterilize music making, albeit unwittingly, of every behavior that the human brain requires for music to "make sense". Until classical musicians recognize and admit to how unmusical hence really boring most of their music making sounds, they won't accept their responsibility for their role in turning classical music into a dusty, dry, irrelevant museum relic...suitable only for being ignored.
This means: Each of us who loves the great classical music has a role to play to change this nasty environment into one that is full of the joy of music...and not just for musicians but especially for all music lovers. That is why we have presented this essay.
A curious side-effect, a side effect which occurs when well trained musicians use these techniques and concepts, that we will present, in their performance practice, an effect in which every musician should be interested, is that these ideas have the power to transform otherwise ordinary performances into ones that show every sign of true musical mastery. Even curiouser is that when these techniques are missing from a performance of music, even a performance which is otherwise virtuosically perfect and otherwise very musical by the highest conventional (unmusical) standards, the music feels supremely, even breathtakingly competent but somehow never feels masterful. These effects are not subtle, because practically every normal, ordinary person can easily notice the effect of musical mastery. Therefore, any musician who desires to partake of the wonderful side-effect need only master and use what follows.
IS THERE AN ULTIMATE AIM IN PERFORMING MUSIC?
We have added this question to our discourse on musical communication because it may help to explain the underlying reason for this discourse in the first place. That is, we believe there is an ultimate aim in the performance of music and in the fascination human beings and even some animals exhibit for listening to music. That ultimate aim is to inspire the souls of listeners and to move their hearts to achieve catharsis. We recognize that there may be other aims, many of which are valid but which also don’t require such a specific explanation as does catharsis.
The crucial element of the cathartic experience for the listener is, we believe, what is known today as mirroring. That is, the unconscious and extremely subtle movements in the bodies of listeners that occurs in response to the movement in the music that is heard. These interior experience in response to music evoke feelings of compassion, empathy, love, and inspiration.
Listen to the singing in this performance of “Its April Again” from the 1952 movie “Moulin Rouge” starring Jose Ferrer and ZaZa Gabor. Try to figure out 1.) if you experience extremely subtle physical inner responses to the music, and 2.) what the singer is doing vocally to create that mirroring response to her gestures and expressions. As we discover more performances that successfully generate the mirroring experience we will continue to post them below. Meanwhile, those videos and musical performances introduced in Parts 1 and 2 that follow are more intended to convey specific examples of the musical techniques we are presenting.
PART ONE: THE ART OF DELIVERY
Playing a musical instrument is a technical craft. Expressing music, by contrast, has been viewed as an art. This view has been held so long that we rarely question it. The purpose of this essay is to question the truth behind this view and to propose another view: that expressing music is also a craft. It is the craft of musical communication, the art of delivery. It is possible to be very good at using a musical instrument skillfully for the purpose of accurately realizing musical notation yet have little skill at the craft of communication. It is also possible to be unskilled at the craft of playing a musical instrument to accurately realize a musical score and still have a high degree of skill in communicating music. This means that these skills have very little to do with each other. The greatest musicians were highly skilled in both crafts. Alas, today we too often hear musicians referred to as "great" who have little skill in the craft of musical communication...like calling a writer great because he or she uses absolutely correct grammar but who can't say anything meaningful...or praising an actor as great who never forgets a line, is always prepared but whose delivery of every line is mechanical and expressionless. Such kudos are absurd.
Musical Communication as the "Art of Delivery" (which is what Aristotle calls the Modes of Utterance, Poetics XIX) is the craft of handling musical material by technical means designed to enhance the enjoyment and understanding of the meaning of music for normal, ordinary music lovers. The purpose of this craft is to touch the soul, raise the spirits, elevate the minds, and deeply move listeners with music; the technical means employed in the exercise of this craft are 11 in number. These techniques are designed to present heard musical information in forms which the average human brain can easily process and comprehend. The cognitive aspect of these techniques is what makes them so powerful--in fact, these techniques are wholly derived from day-to-day human speech and perceptual experiences which we utilize everyday to express ourselves and to communicate with others. All of them are natural to human expression because these techniques are somehow "hard-wired" in the brain for both sending and receiving communications...and not just human brains but all animals with brains, no matter how sophisticated or primitive.
The 11 "cognitive" communication techniques are designed to enhance musical communication rather than act as a replacement for being musical. Being musical is a spiritual quality, and it is this quality which indeed resides in the realm of art. If there is a downside to these techniques, it is that if a musician isn't deeply spiritual, the use of the communication techniques will make this obvious to the listeners. If a musician is spiritual, the communication techniques reveal this reality clearly. The true art of musical performance fuses the craft of accurately realizing a score using a musical instrument and the craft of musical communication, which supports the intended affects with the spiritual substance of the musician.
As the word "technique" suggests, these 11 techniques are very practical tools, not mere theoretical concepts. To that end, we have placed at the end of the discussion of each technique, where the means of application might be ambiguous, a suggestion for how to apply the technique. The techniques need to be applied to work. When they are applied, they do the job for which they are intended. Unapplied, the effect they contribute is absent from music.
There are two kinds of music...music meant to be heard and music intended to be listened to. The 11 cognitive techniques apply only to music intended to be listened to [in the same way that human speech is]. What does this mean for music which is intended only to be heard? For such music, these techniques are unnecessary, in some cases irrelevant. Nevertheless, even for music that is only intended to be heard, the hearers enjoyment of the music is enhanced if these techniques are employed in the performance.
What follows is a discussion of each of the 11 cognitively-derived techniques needed to enhance the communication of music. They have been organized here according to the intensity of the communication enhancing effect each technique has on the listener.
1. The Synaesthesis Technique
Synaesthesia means "multiple, simultaneous perceptions." The brain is designed for perceiving multiple sensations at the same moment; with the senses of sight, smell, and taste, we expect our sensory experiences to be loaded with multiple, simultaneous stimulations. Even a simple pie is a combination of different flavors from fruit, flour, sugar, salt, spices, eggs, butter, and the effects of cooking. The culinary art lives because people adore eating food that is highly dimensional in flavors. Each dish mingles salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and savory (meaty) in various proportions; and we taste these different flavors on various parts of the tongue; which creates the effect of synaesthesia. The senses of sight and smell function similarly. A large measure of the joy of viewing Monet's best paintings is to see all the colors of the palette on every square centimeter of surface. The sense of hearing likewise needs that same level of stimulation. Yet, due to a basic ignorance among musicians about how the ear/brain makes sense of heard experiences, classical music is performed today in a manner due designed to eliminate synaesthesia altogether.
Although the many different frequencies and timbres are detected differently by the ears, we 'hear' or perceive musical and other regular, simultaneous sounds as composites, rather than distinct and discreet frequencies and timbres. When music is performed in a way designed to have sounds such as chords be heard as composites, the human ear usually hears only one sound. If the composer has written a four note chord, and all the notes are played simultaneously, the ordinary listener will hear not four notes but one sound only--a rich sound, but nonetheless only one sound. If the performer endeavors to perform each note in the chord so that the notes don't sound absolutely together, the musically untutored listener will easily hear all four notes and the chord simultaneously, creating for such a listener an experience of hearing a total of five sounds altogether.
The synaesthesis technique requires heard musical information to be slightly desynchronized, just enough for the mind of the listener to perceive all the timbres, all the pitches, all the melodies, all the rhythms, all the details, and all the harmonies, so that they all emerge into the consciousness of the typical music lover.
It's important to remember that the normal, ordinary human brain is so competent that it has no trouble following as many as 6 simultaneous independent streams of musical information, that is, as long as those lines or streams are functioning with total independence, even if they are "supposed to be together," as in music. For example, there are typically 6 parts in a normal rock group. Rock musicians understand the need for conveying the feeling of independence of parts even when the score would indicate otherwise. They are exceedingly sensitive to synaesthetic boredom and work very hard to create synaesthesia in their performances...to not do so would spell financial disaster.
In 1768, Jacob Adlung in his Musica Mechanica Organoedi, vol. 2, chapter 22, paragraph 522, says of playing the harpsichord, "One must endeavor to use more arpeggios and such, rather than striking the keys together or playing too slowly since the strings cease vibrating right away." Mozart and Chopin also insisted that the hands are never played together.
The result of having the notes in music be "misaligned in time" is that they are desynchronous. Desynchronicity, when other than an end in itself, produces a kind of independence of voices, and when voices sound truly independent, the brain is able to perceive each individual voice more easily. When we perceive two or more voices or lines as distinct yet simultaneous expressions, the effect in us is called synaesthesis. It's an amazing paradox that when the motion of multiple voices are truly independent, the surface appears exceedingly complex but, in fact, the music is far simpler or easier for the average listener to behold and follow. Indeed, the listener feels deprived when the feeling of independence of voices is missing. The synaesthesis technique depends on the ability of the performer to hear, follow, and create multiple voices in the music; voices that are clearly independent of the others yet always manage to agree.
When the lines are played as one usually hears them played today, that is, always together or simultaneously, even a trained musician has trouble to tell the voices apart. This is because the brain reads the interval played in this manner as being a composite. Once so recognized, the brain little needs to pay attention to what is happening except in the lowest or the highest voice. Indeed, very few musicians today have the ability to expressively sing and maintain two voices at the same time...this inability results from a "keypunching" attitude in performing, ironically, an attitude that has now even infected singers. Only by consciously creating distinctions between lines and singing independently each and every voice in the music can the performer make clear to the listener what is happening in music with more than one line. Differences in timbre and volume help create more distinction, but these devices never are as consistently successful at creating clear distinctions between the different lines in music as when the synaesthesis technique is used even to only a very slight degree.
Giovanni Tosi, in his treatise on singing titled, "The Art of the Florid Song," published in 1736, uses the term "vacillare" to describe the effect of vacillating in the melody from being before the bass to lagging behind the bass. He states "the singer should endeavor to sing before the beat or after the beat and never with it." Astonishing!!!!! Today, almost no classically trained singers do this because they are usually mercilessly censured for doing so.
It is perhaps a false notion about the way singers are trained in Bel Canto that accounts for the general inability of singers to sing using vacillare. They are habitually trained to produce as beautiful a tone as possible; that's the false notion with which singers are preoccupied. That's the root of the problem. Bel Canto means "beautiful singing," not "beautiful tone". Tosi says of vacillare that it "is one of the most beautiful effects in music." The vacillations he describes give the synaesthesis technique a feeling of flow and freedom...a most beautiful effect indeed.
It is interesting to realize that J.S.Bach, in manuscripts of his keyboard pieces, uses vacillare just as Tosi recommends. When you listen to the next YouTube post below, watch the manuscript as it scrolls by. Careful observation of his manuscript reveals that the vertical alignment of the notes of the right hand either precedes or follows the notes of the left hand. About 60% of time, the right hand notes precede the left hand notes, and about 40% follow the left hand. To suggest that Bach was doing this either unintentionally or that he had problems with vertical alignment is preposterous: Bach was probably the most intentional of all composers, especially when it involved music, and he had no problems aligning notes in orchestral scores.
Forqueray, in his published arrangement for harpsichord of his fathers Pieces for Viola da Gamba, gives instructions that the player play the music exactly as it appears on the printed page. The pieces that follow show the right and left hand notes being vertically non-aligned even to the extent that some whole notes in the left hand appear in the middle of the measure!!
And Giulio Caccini, in his "Nuove musiche e nuove maniera di scriverle" ("The New Music and the New Manner in Which it is Written," Florence, 1614), suggests something very similar to vacillare when he writes: "Sprezzatura is that elegance given to a melody by several technically-incorrect eigths or sixteenths on different tones, technically-incorrect with respect to their timing, thus freeing the melody from a certain narrow limitation and dryness and making it pleasant, free, and airy, just as in common speech, where eloquence and invention make affable and sweet the matters being expounded upon."
Does all this mean that using a synasthesia technique in the form of vacillare is easy? Certainly not. Proficiency requires practice. It is even harder is to develop the ability to think and imagine all the voices one is playing, be they 2 or 5 at once, so that each voice is sung both extremely expressively and independently of the other voices. But it can be done. We coached an organ student who was unable to independently play all voices of a 4 part Chorale Prelude from Bach's Orgelbüchlein and within 20 minutes he was singing and playing all four voices independently and expressively throughout the entire piece-- we know from experience that it is possible for all musicians to learn to do this. Furthermore, Bach's music cannot be heard as it was intended to be heard unless one masters this technique.
Listen to the above musical example of a Bach three part Invention and hear how each voice is being sung expressively and independently, creating the effects of Synaesthesis and Vacillare.
Take the trouble to find other recordings of the same piece and discover if those performers were able to create this feeling of true independence of voices.
Application: Always play with one hand leading the other and vacillate between which of the two hands leads. Try learning to play with the right hand leading the left...it gives the music a natural effortless forward motion and freedom in the sound. Give up trying to be together in ensembles. The exception to this is when one arrives at the end, when a simultaneous concurrence of the voices tells the brain that the music has come to an end.
Application: Sing expressively each and every line or voice as independently as possible of the other lines or voices. Prevent yourself from lapsing or dropping your attention to any line or voice; or the listeners will hear the lapse in attention and cease to pay attention.
Application: In ensembles, vacillate between having the upper voice lead the lower voice and the lower voice lead the upper voice. This vacillation needs to follow the logic of the musical lines and structure. When the upper voice leads, the music soars. When the lower voice leads the music lingers, resisting forward motion.
2. The Inégal or Entasis Technique
Entasis is an ancient Greek term meaning "tensioning." Speech that is delivered in a metrically perfect manner has the power to cause the listener's brain to shutdown and cease processing the meaning of what is being said...all within a few seconds of hearing such speech. The human brain needs the condition of constant or stable irregularity for it to remain alert and attentive: irregularity produces a state of alertness and attentiveness. Constancy or stability eliminates the feeling of discomfort which chaos, the erratic and irregular, often creates. The balance in tension between the feeling of predictability that constancy (stability) provides and the feeling of anticipation that irregularity and unpredictability creates a state of Entasis. The opposite of Entasis is Stasis, or staticness. Entasis in normal human speech is brought about by the flow of thought, which is both irregular and constant. So it must be in music.
The French, in the 17th and 18th centuries, understood the importance of entasis. This, we believe, is what the musicians who wrote about inégal meant by the term. The word actually means rough, irregular, unequal. The conventional interpretation of this word betrays its real meaning by forcing it to conform to the present fashion for perfect metricallity in performance practice of old music--that interpretation suggests that inégal means perfectly regular limping. Had the French writers meant that they would have used the term for limping. Otherwise, they would have used the phrase "égal inégal" or "equal unequal". Therefore, we must take the term inégal at face value and understand it from a cognitive point of view.
In music, cognitively speaking, every note played in a way that is predictable creates stasis. In stasis there is an absence of tension and, consequently, listening further to what is being played is pointless. The feeling is called boredom. This is the brain's cue for falling asleep. Should performers fail to understand the entasis technique, the result is deadly because it virtually guarantees that the audience will be prevented from really paying attention to the music. In his treatise on Poetics (XXIV), Aristotle observed that "sameness of incident soon produces satiety." Similarly, anyone can observe that it takes only three notes of equal value with two equal spaces between them to create a condition of boredom in the brain. Within the time it takes to hear three notes, the brain has noticed that the second event is like the first, that the third is like the second and the first, and it predicts that the fourth will follow the pattern. As soon as that prediction comes true, the brain either goes to sleep from boredom or looks elsewhere for something more interesting. If this happens, as it usually does, in the brain of a performer, mistakes are the natural byproduct. To the listener, mistakes which occur in a static musical environment become the meaning instead of the music...a disaster. This is why musicians today who can't learn to play music without mistakes are discouraged by every means possible from performing in public; because those who give such advice assume that music is supposed to be boring. This comes from the false notion that "one ought not take liberties with the score", as a famous musician once informed us. Entasis means that one ought to take liberties with the score because expressing the meaning of music requires it; and what listeners go to concert for is to feel the meaning of the music, not to hear a score being mathematically accurately realized...something any computer can be programed to accomplish.
Interestingly, learning to play music exactly according to a metronome is, in our view, the major cause of performance anxiety. It is virtually impossible to avoid making mistakes when your brain has gone to sleep. It is hard enough to avoid making mistakes when your brain is fully alert. Since mistakes become the cognitively most important event in music making that is rigid and mechanical, mistakes by default become the meaning in such a performance. And when the mistakes become the meaning, which is always what happens when music is played metrically, the groundwork for paralyzing fear of performing has been carefully and cleverly established. It is the reason why one might define talent in music today as the ability to play the right notes, exactly in time according to a metronome, with a brain that is fast asleep.
Metrical exactitude in musical performance guarantees that most listeners are barred from experiencing the spiritual essence of great music. It also guarantees that music can only be heard and ignored by most people. It is the embodiment of slavishness in music...slavishness to the metronome, that is,...exactly the opposite of what CPE Bach suggested, in his Essay on the "True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments," when he wrote that one should "endeavor to avoid everything mechanical and slavish. Play from the soul, not like a trained bird." The entasis technique is the way out of slavery into freedom. It is simple to do: perform notes of equal value in any manner other than that which appears, feels, sounds, or can be construed as regular or equal.
Using this technique has problems. The greatest problem is that it sounds chaotic. Most musicians vehemently hate this effect; indeed, it is unpleasant. Generally, people feel that listening to people who speak in a halting, jerky, and noticeably arbitrary manner is a waste of time and energy. However, we shall discuss below what other cognitive techniques can be employed; ones designed to create order and logic out of the chaos of totally irregular, unmetrical music making. Those are: the Gesture, Syntactical or Voice leading, and the Recognition Signal techniques. They create the feeling of logic, flow, and meaning when the techniques of Synaesthesia and Entasis are being applied. The second problem is that musicians have been bullied into playing metrically accurately for so long that playing not-metrically accurately on purpose is hard to do. It actually takes practice, as does the synaesthesis technique. But, as with all things, practice makes perfect...except in this case, one must understand that perfect is a feeling in the souls of the listeners, not an articulated fact in the accurate presentation of pitch and time values of each and every note in the score. Music must feel perfect. To be so, it must appear to the ear to be metrically imperfect.
What, then, is the role of the beat? We feel that the beat should be felt and not heard. Like the beating of the heart, the musical beat needs to fluctuate in speed as the emotional content of the music fluctuates. Like the naturally shifting accents in speech, musical accents need to shift according to the meaning being expressed. As soon as the beat, meter, or accents become noticably regular and unvarying, they appear too obvious and, hence, are in bad taste because they sound pedantic and academic, or worse, like really bad acting.
In the next musical example, you will hear a Scarlatti Sonata played with Synaesthesis, Vacillare, and Entasis or inégal. Notice how the music appeals to our feeling more than our judgment.
Application: Avoid performing music in strict accordance with the beat. Avoid having ever more than three notes of equal value sound equally with equal spaces between them. Even two notes of equal value and space is enough to create a flattening of the listener's attention.
3. The Gesture or Inflection Technique
The Gesture or Inflection technique is designed to group musical and verbal information into larger units that have shapes that are easily recognized and remembered by the brain of the listener. Language lives or dies by inflection. Flat, uninflected speech is instantly tedious and tiresome to focus on. Highly inflected speech is effortless to pay attention to. Music is the same. Inflection (gesture) is the technique we all use in speech to organize the distinctly irregular nature of language. Specifically, the shape of the gestures or inflections is a parabolic curve. The egg is an excellent example of this kind of shape; one could also say that the shape is elliptical. This shape creates a feeling of naturalness and is easy to follow. Language without this gesture of inflection is flat, expressionless, ugly, and difficult to comprehend...so it is with music.
To properly realize a logarithmic gesture in music, a performer must study nature and copy the shapes that nature has to offer. Further, human speech patterns are replete with this gesture in utterances, words, phrases, and groups of phrases. By consciously playing music using the elliptical gesture everywhere and in any way it can be applied, a performer can guarantee that the listeners will feel that the result will be more natural, comforting, and loving.
The brain interprets flat, uninflected speech as the behavior of a listless, dying, depressed, or extremely ill person. In similar manner, it interprets highly inflected speech as the behavior of an animated, spirited, lively, robust, and healthy person. The same is true in music. People normally don't like to be around listless, depressive personalities and love to be with animated, loving people. In the same way, they like listening to music that feels animated and highly expressive, even if the feeling of the music is of sadness and of grief.
Application: organize musical information in easy to follow and understand gestures and mini-gestures, by accelerating a line and then decelerating it so that all the equal note values are gradually being stretched apart or compressed as you can hear in the next video.
4. The Syntactical or Voice Leading Technique
The Voice Leading technique comes from the syntactical or grammatical property of speech. Notice what happens to the above sentence when all the words are reordered to eliminate references: "The or voice grammatical syntactical comes technique property speech leading of from." The reason the reordered sentence can never make sense is that every word has been treated as the equal of all the others. The order, or lack of it, as is really the case, is designed to reinforce that equality--that is, all the words in that sentence above refer to no other words. The result is that the sentence means absolutely nothing...even if we know what each word means.
The human brain requires referential relationships in everything it takes in in order to make sense of things. Anything which lacks this referential aspect creates the feeling of nonsense in the brain. We ignore it at our aesthetic peril. It is this syntactical, "referential" property of language that underlies the logic in music. This is the logic needed to make the inégal or entasis technique work most successfully.
Sense and meaning in both language and in music come from the appropriate grouping of words and notes into phrases or gestures which seem to go together, but only when the grammatical sense of each word or note is considered and "leaned" on or stressed to emphasize the intended meaning. Just as all parts of a sentence refer in some way to the noun/subject, every note in the diatonic scale refers to the tonic. This view holds that understanding the intervals and chords in any scale is essential to understanding music's expressive meaning just as the phrases and clauses in sentences are essential to understanding meaning in language. This is the heart of the voice leading technique. Since the human brain is "hard-wired," so to speak, to grasp meaning through grammar and phrases in language, for the brain to be exposed to music which has little feeling of grammatical tendency is to force the brain to work out what those tendencies are--all by itself. The problem is, music goes by too fast for that to happen, so the brain will just "tune out" and go into a sleep mode. The question is: is this an appropriate outcome for a musical performance?
The outward technical devise used for the voice leading technique is legato (using the real meaning of "legato", which is "connected" as "connected in the mind" rather than merely in the ear), and the musical approach for this type of legato is "cantabile" (using the real meaning of cantabile, which is "in a singing style" and taking that style to mean the style of a truly great singer). Bach was renowned for his cantabile playing. Indeed, a letter dated 12 April 1842 written by F.K.Griepenkerl (a student of N. Forkel) relates that "Bach himself, his sons, and Forkel performed the masterpieces with such a profound declamation that they sounded like polyphonic songs sung by individual great artist singers; thereby, all means of good singing were brought into use. No cercare, no portamento was missing. There was even breathing at the right places...Bach's pieces want to be sung with the maximum of Art."
Application: Sing as expressively as possible every line in a score and then play the music exactly as expressively as you sang it. We have noticed that musicians are almost never more expressive in their playing than they are in how they actually sing music. A musician who sings music in a boring manner WILL play in a boring manner. Likewise, a musician who practices in a note-punchingly boring manner will perform in concert in a note-punchingly boring manner. It is therefore imperative that those musicians who can play more than one line at a time on their instrument be competent to sing every line in the score simultaneously for the entirety of each piece. As one musician complained, "This is hard work!!!!" Our response is, "Get used to it. It is what making music is all about."
Application: What is unbelievable as much as it is fascinating is that any person just off the street can tell instantly the moment a player has stopped singing the lines in his or her imagination. They can't articulate what has happened, but they usually say that the life went out of the music just at that moment. In fact, human beings know so much about how music needs to sound for it to work for them that any musician who gathers a group of non-musicians around them and asks that group of listeners to teach them how to play music in a way that the listeners feel works for them will quickly discover exactly how articulate and competent such listeners are. There is an appropriate protocol for running such an experiment. The key is to start each piece by playing it as metrically accurately and as boringly as possible. Then ask the listeners what they feel would make the music speak more directly for them. Play the music again using the suggestions the listeners made, then ask them again to suggest how to improve what was just played. Keep doing this for at least five or six versions. As the improvements are being made, the amount of energy in the room will astonish every musician who would otherwise treat listeners as passive subjects. If every musician did this experiment, he or she would come to truly appreciate normal ordinary people as listeners and he or she would really learn how to communicate music. We know because we have conducted this experiment ourselves with people who professed a dislike for classical music. The level of appreciation they expressed on hearing the music played for them exactly as they had asked to have it played was inspiring. Try it!
Application: Sing every note as expressively as the note requires and no less, then play it that way. This often means that you must sing all the music in your imagination, as you play, with such intensity, conviction and energy that the little that "leaks" out into the music as it is heard will ravish the listener.
5. The Recognition Signal or Harmonic technique
The Harmonic technique or Recognition Signal is designed to assist in creating the feeling of harmony in the souls of the listeners and the person talking. Human beings will produce this "technical" utterance when acknowledging or agreeing with the person talking. The harmony between speaker and listener results from this utterance; the absence of this utterance indicates a failure to communicate or to persuade. The technique is most effective when the speed and manner of executing it is closest to a spoken technique.
The recognition signal in human speech is designed to express many things from the listener's point of view...agreement, the ability to follow a line of reasoning, "please continue," assent to a point made, etc. It is sounded: "uh-huh," with the pitch rising at the end, and is often accompanied by a bob of the head from down to up. In Section X of his Poetics, Aristotle defines recognition as "a change from ignorance to knowledge." When listeners hear the recognition signal expressed in music, it creates the feeling in the listener of being able to easily follow what is happening in the music and the feeling of unanimity between the performer and the listener. It also makes knowing with utter clarity what the harmony of a note is. The recognition signal or "cercare" is the vehicle whereby the feeling in the listener of not knowing what is happening in a piece of music is changed into a feeling of knowing what is happening. That feeling is usually described as spiritual because it is experienced as a feeling of being enlightened.
The word "cercare" (pronounced chair-cár-e), from the quote in the Griepenkerl letter (that "Bach himself, his sons, and Forkel performed the masterpieces with such a profound declamation that they sounded like polyphonic songs sung by individual great artist singers; thereby, all means of good singing were brought into use. No cercare, no portamento was missing. There was even breathing at the right places...Bach's pieces want to be sung with the maximum of Art."), is defined in Riemann's Musiklexicon as a 17th century Italian ornament in which the upper or lower auxiliary note is performed softly and suddenly to the main note. This is exactly how the recognition signal is expressed; in other words, the recognition signal is a cercare. Yet, today the cercare is frowned on by most classical music singers as being in exceedingly bad taste. Do you suppose Bach played his own music in bad taste? Who do we trust in this matter? We choose to trust Bach and natural human expression.
Application: The speed of the Cercare is its most important characteristic. If the speed of the cercare is too slow, then it sounds like an arpeggio. If the speed is too fast, then it sounds like a grace note. The correct speed for most uses is the speed at which you most naturally would say "pah-DUM" with the accent on the second syllable. If you say this as PAH-dum with the accent on the first syllable, it is too slow. And, if you say it as pahdum without accent, it is too fast. As the music expresses greater gravity of feeling, the cercare is performed more slowly and with greater emphasis. As the music expresses more liveliness, the cercare is performed more rapidly and lightly.
Notice in the video below how Bach has composed his Chaconne beginning it with a total of 20 Cercare with only a few notes intersperse between them. Count them yourself as Mr. Vengerov plays the music. The music begins with a cercare. In fact, Bach's statement of the Chaconne from the D minor violin Partita is really just one big excuse for playing one cercare after another. Notice, too, that Mr. Vengerov plays the cercare at the right speed for the piece, not too fast and not too slow.
The Italian Concerto by Bach begins with a cercare. Beethoven's Pathetique sonata begins with a cercare followed by another with a few notes stuck in between. The Ninth Symphony of Beethoven is full of cercare...though you would never know it from hearing it as it it usually played.
6. The Distortion or Attention Grabbing Technique
This technique is any device used to get or place the listener's attention where the performer desires it to be. A clearing of the throat is just such a device--it draws the attention to that particular moment. Magicians' tricks would never work if they failed to employ this device--which they call distraction. A trill or any other ornament is also such a device. When a singer changes the vowel being sung during a long held note, it is a distortion of the original vowel and creates a feeling of increased interest on the long note in the minds of the listeners. Noise or "dirt" is another example--the acciaccatura is an example of "dirt" being added to a chord.
In the following example, notice how much 'gravel' is in the sound of Louis Armstrong's voice. Notice also how the sounds he makes change with affect that the words are expressing. He sings with almost all the techniques except Evaporation and Excrusis.
The distortion technique is heard when a singer allows the voice to crack or break for emotive effect. Another example is when a violinist crushes the string when playing a specific note to create a distortion which "attentively loads" the note. The conventional definition of portamento refers to a glide in pitch from one note to another. Continuous vibrato employed by singers and string instrument players is also an example of the distortion technique. However, the problem posed in music by any continuous distortion is that it obscures clarity of pitch. Musicians who employ continuous distortion do so to hide something. Singers who sing with continuous vibrato often use it to disguise their inability to actually sing in tune. The same could be said of many string instrument players. Not only clarity of pitch is compromised by the continuous vibrato, but it also destroys the ability of listeners to understand the words being sung. Notice how it is so easy to understand what Mr. Armstrong is singing about; this is because he stops using vibrato when he is actually singing the words. That is why his singing actually fulfills the meaning of the term: Bel Canto or "beautiful singing". Beautiful singing doesn't mean beautiful sounds or beautiful tones; it means beautiful singing. Since singing is all about the words, when the words can't be understood, because the manner of singing used obliterates the clarity of the words, then what is actually happening is not singing at all but merely sustaining pitches with continuous vibrato, like an old Wurlitzer electronic organ (for those unfamiliar with this peculiar object, you can hear what it is all about here: https://youtu.be/7Zjed9Mywgk ).
Although Aristotle does not use the word "dirt," he does, in fact use the word "error" in the following sense: "error may be justified, if the end of the art be thereby attained, that is the effect of this or any other part...is thus rendered more striking." (Poetics, XXV) He adds to this the warning: "If the end might have been as well, or better, attained without violating the special rules of the poetic art, the error is not justified: for every kind of error should if possible be avoided." No clearer definition of poetic license can be had. The distortion technique needs to be used judiciously if the end result is not to be marred by a wanton, intemperate use of the technique, such as what is described above. And so it must be for all the techniques.
Yet the greatest error of all is to create a feeling of boredom in the listener by a too-polished performance...that is the grossest breach of good taste. Here we must add a comment: there are listeners who actually like music played in a manner that most people, us included, find totally boring and meaningless. These listeners tend to be interested primarily in the information presented in a piece of music, how it is constructed, how the composer has played with the information, and the mathematical accuracy of the performance. The ideal performer for such listeners would be a computer, because computers make no mistakes in the data transmission. But neither data transmission nor accountancy is appropriate to the realm of art. Most listeners listen to music to feel what the music is about, that is, to feel the feelings which the composers intended when they first wrote the music. Where feeling is natural and genuine, there is bound to be some element of chaos and unpredictability. The impulse to eliminate these elements is an error of arrogance and ignorance. For one to assume to know better than nature what is right is arrogant, and to assume to understand nature without the ability to create naturalness in art, even to the slightest degree is ignorant, even if that nature is only that of music.
Therefore, think carefully when sterilizing a musical performance by eliminating everything interesting and unpredictable, lest you achieve perfection without realizing that the only thing perfect about perfection is that it is perfectly boring. The true aim for perfection in art is the feeling of perfection, not the fact. The feeling of perfection in Botticelli's "Birth of Venus" is a direct result of the astonishing amount of distortion he used in the creation of that painting in relation to the proportion of its design.
Application: Don't be afraid of making ugly sounds, especially if the affect you are after needs it to feel right. Ugliness, like Beauty, are relative things. We experience something as more beautiful when it is juxtaposed with something ugly--that is the appeal of stories like "Beauty and the Beast." Conversely, music without dissonance is boring. Dissonance without consonance feels arbitrary, irrelevant, and harsh. Consonance without dissonance feels saccharine and dopey.
When learning to master ornamentation, understand that adding an ornament enhances the moment in the music to which it is added. Avoid ornamenting or enhancing moments that are already loaded with some other more effective technique of enhancing. Since the great composers clearly understood these techniques, they wrote them into the scores so that musicians would know which technique they were asking for. The ornaments a composer wrote into the music were those considered to be essential and therefore, obligatory. However, more could be added ad libitum as needed depending on the instrument, the room acoustics, and the tempo.
Zest is the principle effect of the distortion technique. Even a disconsolate affect needs zest to communicate the degree of intensity of the feeling. Poetic license grants every performer the freedom to create an enhanced experience of feeling for the listener by whatever means necessary. It is not, however, a certificate of refined or sensitive taste. That is the responsibility of the performer--that is, everything is allowed, but always remain sensible to the quality of integrity, so that the music, not the playing, remains foremost in the hearts of the listeners.
7. The Anxiety Free or "Sans souci" Technique
We call this technique "sans souci" because it is designed to create moments in the music which give the feeling of shrugging the shoulders, throwing up the hands in a gesture to say, "Don't take all this so seriously!! Live a little!! Stop controlling!! Let go! Be happy!! Don't worry so much!! In other words, "sans souci" - without a care!"
That is, when the alignment of notes in the score suggests that the notes be performed strictly simultaneously, they are rather to be purposely jumbled or played in an irregular or a staggering manner to create a careless (sans souci) effect. A rose by any other name smells as sweet. Whether you call it a sans souci technique or tempo rubato or jazzy feeling or disjointed or whatever, the idea of relaxed effortlessness is paramount in the feeling which this technique gives to music.
Anxiety rubs off on all who observe it. A musician who is concerned and anxious about making mistakes generates a feeling of anxiety in the audience through body language, the sound, and through the way the music is presented. Physical tension creates anxiety; attention dispels anxiety. Mental stress creates anxiety; relaxation dispels anxiety. Mechanical, metrical, and regular playing creates anxiety; inégal, irregular, and logical playing eliminate anxiety. Overconcern with relatively meaningless detail creates anxiety; sweeping gestures dispel anxiety. Obsession with accuracy creates anxiety. Focusing on meaning and purpose dispel anxiety. Concern about the opinion or others creates anxiety. Carelessness of the opinions of others dispels anxiety. Self consciousness creates anxiety. Confidence and a total lack of self consciousness dispel anxiety. That is the function of sans souci. Listeners can only truly enjoy listening when a sans souci environment and attitude prevails.
Application: Sans souci is the antithesis of how we are taught to play classical music. The attitude is the most important means of applying this technique. To apply it means looking for every opportunity to use it: try every passage to see if it can't be improved by having the lines staggered by exactly one half the written value...sometimes the bass leading and sometimes the treble line leading. You can find a reference to this in Türk's treatise on Playing the Clavier under tempo rubato.
8. The Stride Technique
In 17th century France, St. Lambert, in his preface to his compositions, states that the normal tempo in music is that of a man walking. The observation that anyone can make from looking at people walking is that they all walk at different tempi, and the only conclusion that one can make of this is that St. Lambert was an idiot! If we take what St. Lambert said seriously and attempt to discover what he observed, then something very interesting happens: we discover that he was right. That is, if you observe all people walking, they indeed walk at all different tempi, but if you observe only those people walking "who are intending to get someplace specific," they all walk at the same tempo. Large or small, young or old, the tempo is the same for anyone who is healthy, able, strong, and normally formed. The tempo they stride at to get someplace intended is exactly 116 beats per minute--for every other purpose, people walk at all different speeds.
For your ease and benefit, we found a widget at the AppleStore for a metronome called METRONOMIC offered as a free download by its maker, Jeffrey Qua, who graciously reconfigured his widget so it could be posted here on our website for your experimental convenience...as you will find below. What follows below that are some Youtube videos of examples showing people walking. What is interesting is that you can relatively easily guess about the intentions of people when their stride is not exactly 116 MM.
What makes this so fascinating is that music, like thought, always intends to get someplace specific. That place happens to be the end of the thought--or the cadence. What makes this even more compelling is that just as we walk to get someplace specific at 116, most people also speak with the normal accents in their speech occurring at a rate of 116 beats per minute--only when we have something specific to say. People who by temperament, by personality, by persuasion, or by habit speak either faster or slower than that speed are perceived to be intolerably dull or slow witted if they speak much slower than 116, or untrustworthy, if they speak much faster than 116. The affect of being slower is of slothfulness or of painful self consciousness. The affect of speaking faster is that of a shyster who is always trying to fast talk people into doing things they don't want to do.
If all this weren't interesting enough, the normal accents of our speech occur at 116 beats per minute, our moments of pause, our moments of emphasis, our phrases, the duration of silence between exchange of speakers in conversation occur at 72 beats per minute. What makes this intriguing is that if you divide 116 by 1.618... (the number needed to calculate the ratio of the "Golden" proportion) you get 72 (71.69...exactly)!
Niel deGrasse Tyson
Larry King
Spanish
Hindi
Finnish
Arabic
Farsi
Romani
Navajo
Anyone who finds these observations too incredible should prove it for themselves: take a metronome, set it at 116, and put it in front of a television to discover the truth for yourselves. Then, set the metronome at 72 to verify the speed of emphatic moments, pauses, phrases, etc. Then, try setting it slightly off these tempi to see if speeds such as 118 or 74 or 114 or 70 produce the same level of coincidence.
There are a few other tempi which work. These tempi are multiples or divisions of 116 and 72 such as 58 (one half of 116), 144 (twice 72), 96 (4 times 72 divided by 3...a 3:4 ratio), 108 (3 times 72 divided by 2...a ratio of 3:2) 87 (116 times 3 divided by 4...a 3:4 ratio), etc.
What one can conclude from these observations is that the human brain is designed to process heard information at a precise rate of flow. The rate of flow may change depending on the significance, density, importance, intensity, or degree of urgency of the information. If the information flows at a rate faster than it can be processed and comprehended, we feel overwhelmed. If it flows at a rate slower than it can be processed and comprehended, we feel hampered, impatient, irritated, or bored by the manner of delivery.
We have proposed that the mechanism in the brain which processes flow does so on the basis of speed of flow in relation to intensity of content. If the intensity of content decreases, yet the speed of flow remains constant, the perception will be that the flow has become much slower. Hence, as intensity of content decreases, the speed of flow must increase, lest the mind become bored. Conversely, if the intensity of content increases, but the speed of flow remains the same, the mind assumes that the speed has increased, thus, the speed must decrease, otherwise the mind will soon feel overwhelmed. This is most easily understood as an inverse proportion: the more that is happening in the heard music, the slower the tempo needs to be, and conversely the less that is happening in the heard music, the faster the tempo needs to be. Furthermore, each of these musical communication techniques, when added to a performance, will require the tempo of that performance to be ever slower, if only slightly, depending on the information intensity of the score.
Thus it is fair to criticize the way classical music is performed today, as it is overly controlled as to strict metrical regularity and tightness of simultaneous soundingness of parts, because, in the case of early music, musicians feel compelled to play too fast (due to the lack of interest or meaning in the delivery) or, in the case of romantic literature, too slowly, in order to include in their performances those techniques which they are accustomed to using for the purpose of "warming" up an otherwise cold sounding, mathematically accurate performance. Those techniques to which we refer are: a continuous vibrato, acceleration and deceleration of a predictable and regular sort, and predictably regular gradations of change in volume (techniques which when applied to speech produce the silliest, most ridiculous effect). In the first case, of early music, the excessive speed fills up the spaces between notes so the listener's brains won't have the opportunity to fill up those spaces with thoughts of boredom. And, in the second case, the "warming" techniques, used to take the chill off otherwise stiff, passionless performances, are distractions which the performers hope will divert the listener's attentions from their unimaginative playing.
In the following example video, the tempo is actually 116 MM but because the performers unwisely chose the wrong note value to assign to that tempo and because the rendition is excessively metrical the affect feels perfunctory on the one hand and heavy handedly adolescent on the other. Listen to what happens to the same piece when that same 116 MM tempo is assigned to the correct note value in the recording the follows the Perlman video. The affect in the second recording is full of energy and intensity, like a breath of fresh air or stepping into a fast running Alpine stream in your bare feet.
In the subsequent video, Mr. Gould chooses the tempo 72 MM for the Aria and 116 MM for the variations that follow, but the playing is so rigidly metrical that all the naturalness is missing and the playing sounds constipated and forced. By contrast the same piece in the video that follows the Gould video, by harpsichordist Robert Hill, sounds natural and free because, though the Aria is played at the self same tempo, Hill uses so many of the communication techniques in his playing that what results is playing that is both unforced and gestural, which produces a generally far more dimensional performance.
Tempo selection in music needs to account for the changing rate of flow, which depends on the significance, density, importance, intensity, or degree of urgency of the information, as well as the affect of the piece. Failure to hit upon the right tempo will create the effect of forcing (if the tempo is slightly too slow), or racing (if it is slightly to fast). However, if these observations are dismissed altogether, then the selection of tempo is based on hope; much like buying groceries, throwing them into the oven and hoping an edible dish will emerge after a while...a kind of three stooges approach to cooking.
Application: be aware of where in a piece a value maybe played at 116 or 72 and test these tempi on listeners. These tempi should make music feel more natural to listeners. Sometimes it will be more challenging to play because the speed may be far faster than a player can handle the technique of playing. However, many composers took these tempi into account in the writing of the music and made the piece so that it would be easier to play when taken at the correct tempo...even if the tempo was significantly faster than normal.
9. The Evaporation or Mystery Technique
This technique is best executed on dynamic instruments such as the clavichord, fortepiano, pianoforte, violins and such, lutes and guitars, as well the voice. The evaporation technique is a diminishing of the volume of sound on the end of a phrase until it altogether disappears or evaporates. The technique is also used in cinema, where it is called the fade. The evaporation somehow forces the minds of the listeners to finish the phrase as it disappears. By playing with the power of suggestion, a performer can lure the music lover on a path of his or her own making. The part of the music which evaporates is usually not particularly important--evaporating the less interesting parts of the score makes them as powerful to the mind of the listener, even if they are less obvious to it.
Cognitively speaking, the brain is designed to lock on to what always appears to be out of its reach. This is why, though the eye is designed to perceive light, it is shadows which most attract it. When ideas are stated flatly and emphatically, the mind tends to treat them as unimportant, a fault of much technical writing. But when ideas are merely alluded to and suggested by inference, the mind won't be satisfied until it knows all about them. When ideas are clearly expressed with a strong point of view, the information is processed and accepted or rejected by the mind, but in either case can't be ignored. When information is ever present, it becomes part of the landscape and few notice the information. But when sound is strongly waxing and waning unpredictably, the mind of the listener is allowed to more easily grasp how the ideas are wrought and grouped. Whatever is mysterious and hidden tantalizes the soul. This is the perennial lure of the spiritual realm; brains invariably want what they can't have.
By shading a performance to reflect an understanding of the evaporation technique, as well as the other techniques, listeners feel the paradox between an understated phrase ending and the strong attention-focusing effect which is created by using the evaporation technique.
Application: Choose particularly unimportant moments in the music to “evaporate”, like the ends of phrases or arpeggiated chords-moments which would otherwise fall flat. Then, prepare the minds of the listeners by gradually diminishing the volume of the sound so that only the last note, though played, is completely silent. This only works in live performances where the listeners can see the note being played but not hear it. In recordings, the note needs to be heard but also needs to be so soft that it causes the listener to feel the evaporation effect. Poetic license and a sense of what works are the best guides. In the following example of Horowitz playing Bach, you will notice how he skillfully employs many of the communication techniques, but those of evaporation and hesitation are strongest in that he evaporates the beginning and hesitates before or on many of the notes of the Chorale making the melody sing like a great artist singer while allowing many of the accompanying voices to whisper to almost nothing.
10. The Timing or Hesitation Technique
The way to perform the timing or hesitation technique is to hesitate a moment before playing the most important note in a line; yet another is to hang on to or hesitate on a note for much longer than its written value. This technique involves manipulating the listener's expectations of what note is going to sound, and when it actually sounds, and when it stops sounding. This technique happens when a climactic note is slightly delayed by the performer, like a hesitation, so that the listener has just enough time to take the suggestion and mentally fill in the note before the performer finally makes the note sound. Comedians use this technique to change the timing of an expected word to one that is unexpected, which, of course, causes laughter.
Public speakers who overuse this technique come across as being contrived and unconvincing. Ditto with performers. As always, unpredictability is key to creating naturalness of effect. The singer in the next example stretches the limits of the timing, especially at the beginning, which is especially interesting.
The cognitive partner of hesitation is anticipation. Anticipation is created by building up assumption on assumption about what will happen. When the event which should occur fails to happen at the expected time, there exists a moment of disappointment. That moment of disappointment gets transformed into a rush of pleasure when the event finally comes to pass. This is what children experience on Christmas morning: parents use delaying tactics to draw out the moment of opening the presents in order to increase the pleasure of discovering what Santa left for each child. If children are given free reign to rip everything open in a willful race, they can experience disappointment even at getting what they wanted. If they are prevented from building up any anticipation by knowing that there are heavy-handed rituals to be followed, they lose interest in the moment of discovery. So it is for most people when it comes to music, comedy, politics, and sports; the art of these endeavors is in the timing.
Application: Know what notes in the music are the highest in pitch, strongest in accent but weakest in affect, most obvious and predictable, or the climax of the piece. Then, either delay a moment before playing them or hold them longer than written. The moment the hold or the delay becomes obvious, as doing something unusual, the hold or the delay is too long.
The purpose of this technique is to catch the attention of the listener unawares in order to create the effect of a quickening of the attention. The moment that effect happens for the listeners is the moment the music must continue to its inevitable conclusion.
11. The "Excrucis" Technique
The word excrucis is derived from the Latin: ex, meaning - out of, and crux, meaning - cross. Excrucis is, literally, "out of cross" or "out of crossing." This technique has to do with how important moments involving dissonances are treated. When voices in music, each of which is logically and expressively following its own inexorable path, come together in a crossing, or an extreme dissonance which then resolves in an elegant and beautiful manner, the moment is ripe for the excrucis technique. These moments, properly treated, produce some of the most "excruciatingly" beautiful effects of which music is capable.
Beethoven has most skillfully created a 4 voice fugue with an almost impossible theme in order to create a piece of excruciatingly beautiful music that takes the excrusis technique to the most extreme expression of it. To do this Beethoven grinds the voices against each other causing some of the most dissonant, yet beautiful, sounds composed before the advent of atonal music. Not only does he do this once, but he does it thrice as the music is a triple fugue weaving three themes together in a fabric so dense and exquisite that it stretches the listener's feelings to the uttermost.
Perhaps the easiest way to think about this is by noticing how it is similar to the feeling one gets when deeply hugging (out of a crossing action) or being deeply hugged by one you love or who loves you intensely. It feels so good it hurts. Many times such moments in human interaction are heavily loaded with profound emotion of the most positive and spiritual kind. This is the cognitive effect of the excrucis technique. Making the most of those moments in which such voice crossings are found means temporarily slowing the action down, to the point that any casual observer can notice exactly what is happening without causing a loss of flow, in order to create a "grinding" effect as the dissonances rub and grate against each other in the crossing process.
Epilogue to Part One
1). These are the 11 cognitive techniques needed to enhance communication. According to Aristotle, in Poetics XXI, "The perfection of style is to be clear without being mean (commonplace)." What is predictable is commonplace. What is regular is commonplace because it generates predictability and boredom. What lacks evident reference and obvious relationship obscures perception so is therefore commonplace. What substitutes information in place of meaning is commonplace. What is barren of idea or thought is commonplace.
The purpose behind these 11 techniques, for the performer, is to connect musical information into clear and meaningful phrases to help the listeners make sense of the score on one hearing. The effect of these techniques is a clear sense in the minds of the listeners of what is important and what is unimportant. Also, the brain needs constant and intense stimulation in the form of unpredictability, clarity of reference, clarity of relationship, uninterrupted flow of idea, and the occasional enigma in order to maintain an alert, attentive, and focused frame of mind. That is the function of the techniques--these eleven different techniques are devices needed keep the brain from falling asleep and to create connections in order to make clear the musical hierarchy for the listener. What feels clear for the listener creates a feeling of resonance in the soul and so moves it.
2). CPE Bach stressed the importance of flowingness in performance. Flow helps the feeling of connection of all parts and aspects of a heard piece of music. This is of great significance because the use of these eleven techniques can have the tendency to create a disruption of flow, due to the infusion into a musical performance of so much interest, meaning, character, emotion, and expression. [That, we believe, is the reason CPE Bach tried to impress on his readers the importance of flow. However, too often, we read such passages, as that from CPE Bach's treatise, and assume we understand what they mean. That feeling of assumed understanding gives us license to do anything which can be argued will create the effect of which the writer speaks.] In the case of CPE Bach's use of the word "flowing," the meaning today has been perverted to mean constant and continuous sound using the metronome as the final arbiter of truth. Judged by Bach's own words, that behavior is both mechanical and slavish...or as Aristotle might have described it, mean or commonplace.
From all that Bach says of flow, it is clear that he is referring to flow as in "flow of thought." Flow of thought, whether musical or verbal, must be strictly maintained, especially in front of an audience, lest a lapse be detected and the performer appear to have lost his or her train of thought. It also needs to be remembered that flow of thought is always supported by the intention to say something specific. Constant and continuous sound has no such requirement, and as such, is a pathetic attempt to appear competent in the face of a lack of musical ideas or thoughts. And ultimately, it is for this reason that the injunction to maintain strict flow must refer to flow of musical thought because maintaining strict flow of musical thought is essential to an "agreeable" (to use Bach's term) or "love"ly performance.
Flow, however, is not the same thing as tempo or speed in music. As we all know from experience, a performance can exhibit an absolutely strictly maintained speed and yet be devoid of flow of musical thought. In music, it is musical thought which must flow, the notes are necessary only to carry that flow; the simili which works the best is that musical thought must flow like a great river. The eddies, whirlpools, currents, and swirls that one observes on the surface of the river never stop the overall movement of the whole river...it flows on, come what may. So it should be with musical thought. Its purpose is to express the meaning of the music intended by the composer. The performer's job is to intuit what that meaning is and to express the musical thought behind the notes. Any honest effort in this regard, no matter how meager, is better than none at all. These eleven techniques are a means and an aid for uncovering and communicating to listeners the intention of the composer.
3). The problem with using these techniques is that they are effective only when they are obvious. The trick in using them is to be as obvious as possible without having any one technique be the center of attention. This is most easily done by using all of them simultaneously, whenever possible. By intending to use all eleven techniques simultaneously, it becomes impossible to use one to the exclusion of the others, thus keeping all eleven in the right perspective, as it were. As soon as one can notice the technical means of generating an effect, the technique is being employed improperly. As the saying goes: Art disguises itself. It is a delicate balancing act to use a technique or techniques without having the technical aspect become the focus of attention.
4). These techniques enhance musical communication because they induce and support a high degree of attention-paying in the listener and the performer alike. Loving and paying attention are one and the same thing. This is why performances of music can be characterized as either supporting attention-paying or stealing from it...there is nothing in between. The mere presence of sound in a room is no guarantor of attention, only of passive exposure. When a high degree of attention is created in the listener, the meaning intended by the composer can then be felt--the alternative is either boredom or incongruity. Whereas boredom is clear, incongruity is not. That is, performers who lapse into mechanical habits of playing music and only occasionally use one or two of these techniques when they remember to do so, bore the brain but seek to interest the mind. Being both bored and interested is a confusing state to occupy for anyone, but most especially a devoted music lover.
5). Very few listeners have the skill or the power to overwhelm their feelings of boredom in order to focus on meaningless matters (i.e., sound events that can mentally be followed but remain unfelt because the feeling of boredom is too intense) such as compositional techniques and structure...matters which call attention to the "genius" of the composer rather than to the feelings which the composer intended to create in the listener. It requires a significant amount of practice to acquire some degree of mastery to notice these structural details in music when it is performed without these techniques--that is what music students spend their years in conservatories learning. Most average listeners have very little time or patience to do that. Yet, curiously enough, when music is performed in a manner designed to create a high level of attention-paying in the normal listener, all the details of compositional technique and structure are enhanced to the point that listeners can detect and appreciate them.
6). When all of these techniques are used appropriately in a performance, the essence of the music is efficiently communicated by the performer and easily received by the listeners. In the 18th century, the French used the term bon gout to refer to the business of good execution in music. Bon gout only can exist if there is intense flavor of any kind to speak of; you can not have bon gout when everything tastes flat and boring. The fear of mauvais gout creates players who play sans gout. Learning to develop bon gout requires that everything have a strong, pronounced flavor within the context of the text provided. This means that if a syncopation is written, it needs to feel like a syncopation and not merely a separation articulation followed by a tied note...the latter being a statement of facts...the essence of bad taste (mauvais gout). Bon gout implies a strong, cultivated sense of how to balance all the flavors (the cognitive techniques) in the piece by using them all in exactly the right amounts needed to exactly express what Affect the composer is suggesting in the music. No one but yourself can give you that strong, cultivated sense. That is something which only comes to whomever will grab it.
7). The result of an extremely skillful use of technique is a highly expressive performance of music that deeply touches and moves those that hear it. Using these techniques creates the effect of playing "from the soul," that is, playing "from the soul," from the listener's point of view. This is the function and purpose of the Art of Delivery.
By Keith Hill and Marianne Ploger © 2005
Music is nonverbal communication in the form of sound. Affect is how nonverbal communication works. Because Affect is nonverbal communication, every artistic form, like painting, music, acting, dance, etc., has its own way in which the language of Affect is spoken. Without Affect, the nonverbal communicative component of music does not exist--what is left in music when Affect is missing are pitches (either in vertical structures, Harmony, or in linear structures, Melody) in time (Rhythm). Meaning does not exist except by inference. With Affect, music takes on a life of its own and means what the one(s) playing it intend(s). For the listener, music without Affect is like acting without vocal inflection or facial expression...blank and incongruent...the effect for the listener is confusion and boredom.
Affect, like all of our expressions in music or in acting, is something we can choose to manage or to let it just happen. When we choose to just let it happen, sometimes it works, but most times it comes out as the Affect of self consciousness...an unmitigated disaster in music. When we manage our use of Affect, we can eventually become masters of Affect. The more diligent we are about learning the language of Affect and learning how to speak that language fluently, the more masterful our music or art will be perceived to be by the listener.
Until now, learning anything about Affect has been, itself, a source of confusion because very few people have understood what it means and how to express it. Once you have read and incorporated the lessons in this section on Affect, it is possible to reach a level of mastery in virtually any art. In the end, talent will have almost nothing to do with becoming a master musician, but the willingness and dedication to the hard work of understanding and learning to "speak" the language of the soul will have everything to do with it.
What is Affect?
Affect is the suggestion of the expression of an emotion, a state of being, a physical state, a state of mind, or an attitude. The crucial word in this definition is suggestion. It is also the word that makes understanding Affect difficult for most people. However, it is not as complicated as it would appear: remember, Affect is the nonverbal meaning in nonverbal communication. And most people are well practiced at expressing this type of communication--it is a natural part of human expression. For this reason, everyone has the potential to master the whole range of Affective expressions. To reach that potential takes focus, will, determination, and a certain freedom of spirit.
Perhaps the most effective way to illustrate exactly what Affect means is to examine the most sophisticated use of Affect developed in the 20th century, cartoon animation. Let's look, for instance, at Daffy Duck. This character is given to violent outbursts of feeling, insanity, and foolishness. Anyone who has seen this character's antics cannot fail to be convinced of his emotional outbursts.
To Duck or not To Duck (1943)
In fact, Daffy Duck does not exist; Daffy is a fictional character that appears on the screen through the magical craft of animation. Because Daffy's animators understood Affect, they could create films which would convince an audience that Daffy Duck existed, that he had passionate emotions, and that he was a conniving, greedy, slick, loquacious little duck, totally self centered and conceited. If his animators had not understood Affect, Daffy would not feel real and palpable to us...and we wouldn't love this foolish avaricious duck so much.
To make Daffy seethe, the animators had to study all the gestures, poses, expressions of seething, and the order in which they occurred. The same is true for when they needed to have Daffy be deliriously happy or conniving or indolent or bored or irritated or in love or any of the other feelings they wished us to know Daffy has. The meaning or the nature of Daffy's character and soul is evident to us because of the careful attention to Affect which the animators diligently studied.
The reason why our own anger or confusion or love is not Affect is because our feelings are real--only when we act like we are angry or act like we are confused or act like we are in love do we use Affect. Affect is the result of really good acting. Poor acting bespeaks a poverty of Affect; no Affect is the direct effect of bad acting.
Affect is present when we clearly and unambiguously understand and feel what is being expressed. When Affect is missing, we as listeners become confused because, especially in music, meaning is complex. Affect makes simple all of the complexities of feeling which music is capable of expressing. When the feeling is clear and unmistakable, the Affect or Affects being expressed impress themselves upon our soul and we respond.
The reason our soul is impressed by Affect is that Affect is the language of the soul. That bears repeating. Affect is the language of the soul. The significance of this statement is that we can communicate with the souls of others by using the language which all souls use to express themselves. This is why learning about Affect, thinking about Affect, performing with Affect, expressing Affect, and mastering Affect are the most important part of the job of being a musician, artist, dancer, architect, actor, writer, poet, or playwright.
Learning the Language of Affect
Affect is the suggestion of a feeling, not the feeling itself. Emotion is a feeling like anger, jealousy, sadness, or joy.
To be an Affect, an expression must be a suggestion of something and not the thing itself. In acting, when a character in a play says or does something which suggests that he or she is suspicious, a good actor will do whatever is required to create the suggestion of suspiciousness. The only way an actor will know if he or she is successful is if the audience feels that the character is suspicious. Should the audience think the character is mean instead of suspicious, then the actor has failed. Why? Because an Affect has the quality of being completely objective...which is to say, almost everyone "reads" the same meaning from the expression. This is why it is of paramount importance that musicians learn to manage and master Affect. Otherwise, those who listen may get the exact opposite nonverbal communication than the one intended.
Furthermore, if the audience merely knows that the character is suspicious but doesn't feel it, then the actor has failed. Why? Because we often know many things which we do not feel. The difference for us is that we tend not to care much about those things which we know, and we also tend to care a great deal about those things about which we have feelings. So, if the actor has not generated the feeling of suspicion in the audience, the actor has failed. Only when the audience feels conviction about the suspicious nature of the character can we say that the actor has done his or her job well.
Affect communicates directly with the soul of the receiver in an unambiguous manner. How do we know this? Infants respond to an Affect even if they don't understand the words. If you tell an infant in the most loving and adoring manner that she is super intelligent and the next momentstill in a loving and adoring tone of voice say that he is stupid, the infant will understand the loving and adoring manner, not the words. The same is true for dogs, cats, birds, etc. The tone of voice and inflection which suggest love and adoration are received objectively by the infant as the real meaning--that is the power of the nonverbal aspect of the communication. In the same way, if you express loving words in a scolding manner, the infant will feel scolded and start to cry. The manner of expression, more than the content of the words, is what is objectively received and understood nonverbally through the senses, and the infant expresses its comprehension of the real message by feeling loved or feeling hurt or attacked. If the infant reads the tone of voice and the delivery method as love, he will respond by smiling and giggling, but if the infant reads the tone of voice and the delivery as scolding, he will react with fear and start to cry. The words used are irrelevant; only when a child becomes verbal do the words themselves become an issue. In music and in art, words are not an issue, unless you are singing a song.
As adults, we are not above responding to Affect as directly as infants do, to assume the opposite is arrogant. True, when others are angry with us we have to learn to be restrained in our responses sometimes saying things we don't mean so we avoid altercations. But in music, there is no reason to argue, which is why we usually respond to music in much the same way as infants respond to tone and gesture--it is this specific property in music that makes it so compelling to humans. We respond to music in much the same way we did when we were being loved and adored by our mothers.
Perhaps the best way to learn to express Affect is to study children when they are being naturally expressive. What you can notice about the behavior of very young children is that the gestures used to convey Affect are similar from one child to the next. These Affective gestures are not learned but are innate to our species. Indeed, expressing all the emotions, states of mind, attitudes, physical states, and states of being are part of what it is to be human. Learning to express Affect requires paying attention to and remembering the gestures that make up each Affect.
For almost 80 years, ever since the notion of absolute music was self-inflicted on musicians, especially in classical music, making music in a cold, so-called objective, impersonal, highly mannered, and boring style, devoid of Affect (except those of coldness, stiffness, harshness, sternness, and scolding) has become the habit. These puritanical habits of making music without Affect will die hard.
If you wish to communicate anything meaningful in the arts, establishing the habit of paying attention to Affect must be the first order of business. The reason for this is that learning is most efficient when it means something. Learning to play music without the benefit of knowing its meaning is like learning Chinese by imitating the sounds and not ever knowing what the words mean...you plainly don't know what you are saying. The same is true in music. Focus on Affect and meaning, and everything is made decidedly easier if only because it is more fun.
The Structure of Human Affect
Affect is the suggestion of the expression of an emotion, a physical state, a state of mind, or an attitude. We typically express all four of these states simultaneously, on a continuing basis, for most of our waking lives. The greatest music has as its true nature this feature of human nature, that of expressing four Affects simultaneously. Indeed, when there is inherent conflict in the four Affects, the aesthetic effect is far more interesting to us...the more paradoxical, the better. This is what makes the real difference between great art and less than great art. Good stuff only expresses three Affects of the total of four possible. Mediocre stuff expresses two Affects. Bad work expresses but one.
Human beings are complex organisms with complex inner lives. Music, in its most elevated manifestation, is the only form of aesthetic expression which is capable of capturing and expressing the inner life of the soul.
Affect is the language of the soul. So it should not surprise us that when it comes to expressing Affect, the soul always knows what to do and how to do it. Anyone who has been around infants discovers this rather quickly; infants have no benefit of language, yet are perfectly able to communicate their needs and desires to those around them. Adults who are self-involved or are not queued into paying attention to Affect may not understand what an infant wants by his expressions and often end up blaming the infant for being irritating. This attitude is not dissimilar to how many classical musicians think about audiences: if concert attendance is declining, they are too quick to blame listeners for their lack of interest in non-Affective music making! This attitude is one to avoid like the plague. It accounts for why famous opera houses and many symphony orchestras are in financial insolvency.
What follows is a list of Affects. The list is divided into the four types of Affect: Physical, Emotional, Mental, and Spiritual. This list is by no means definitive and should serve only as a model for each person to make up his or her own list of Affects. Indeed, unless each of us takes the time to make up as large a list as possible for each type of Affect, we risk not being able to distinguish or identify Affects and how they differ from emotions. Therefore...make a list of your own. It should look something like this:
Physical Emotional Mental Spiritual
Slothful anguish pensive compassion
brisk loathing serious humility
graceful exuberant ponder forbearance
elegant appalled question patience
pliant frustrated knowing directness
mellifluous rage uncertain intensity
nauseous despair certain love
tired fear remembering joy
painful seething theorize peace
energetic impatient speculate exuberant
leaping happy formulate goodness
jumping sad fantasize confidence
running mad predict restraint
wobbling anxious studying impartial
dancing indifferent noticing tolerant
skipping melancholy searching accepting
hopping tormented categorizing encompassing
frolicking nostalgic skeptical multidimensional
striding sentimental provocative greed
strutting yearning confusion hubris
throwing longing judging pride
gesticulating lonely realizing penance
sultry wishing vexation remorse
soothing craving surprise contrition
heaving ardor disputatious sorrow
craving vengeance rationalizing lamentation
pompous fury agitated recognition
restful jealousy dubious miserable
choking desire pleased arrogance
restless revenge alarmed haughtiness
charming guilt routine boldness
flowing scorn mean business perfidy
barrage scolding stating shame
relaxed manipulating descriptive horror
slow dejection sterile acknowledging
smooth jovial trust apologetic
trotting distress mistrust wondering
antiseptic unsureness cognizant directional
sleazy steady controlling characterizing
threatening unsteady calculating beauty
jolly nervous hesitating clean
laughing empty interested cynical
As an exercise, take one Affect at random from each column and invent a moment in a person's life when all four Affects could reasonably occur simultaneously. For instance: choosing at random, we take the Physical Affect of trotting, the Emotional Affect of empty, the Mental Affect of dubious, and the Spiritual Affect of apologetic. Think of a moment in any person's life when trotting, emptiness, feeling dubious or doubtful, and feeling apologetic would naturally occur. One possibility might be: if you deeply hurt someone close to you without knowing that you did, and the person told you that they never wanted to have anything more to do with you, and as that person walks away from you, you start running after to ask them to discuss what has happened. You want to make right any wrong inflicted, intended or otherwise, but because they are so offended you doubt that they will even listen to you, which leaves you feeling empty inside.
We call this type of scenario an Affective "vignette." Great music is characterized by either a single Affective vignette or a series of short Affective vignettes which give listeners an Affective view of the inside of the soul for a moment or a series of connected moments. Bach's insistence on maintaining a single Affect from the beginning of a piece to the end was an indication of the value he placed on integrity of Affect in music. Empfindsam music is more like an Affective conflict or argument in which, ideally, all four Affects are exhibited in a work and are brought together in a harmony of Affect at the end of the piece.
No other art form has the power to express Affective moments in the lives of ordinary people as much as music. Great music performed without any clear Affect is like viewing a great painting in a room that has no light--everything is there which suggests that an Affect was intended, but the observer can't access it. The true art of the performer is to create an Affect and communicate that Affect by every means imaginable, so that the ordinary music lover is never in doubt as to the Affect being expressed. For a performer to be true to the art in music means being hyperaware of the Affective effect of how any three notes taken from any place in the score might appear to an Affect-sensitive listener. This is why the 11 cognitive techniques exist:using these techniques ensures that, at very minimum, the score is not inadvertently expressing dullness and boredom...Affects that guarantee to put most listeners to sleep, instantly.
as published in the book titled: Orphei Organi Antiqui: Essays in Honor of Harald Vogel
by Marianne Ploger and Keith Hill ©2005
edited by Cleveland Johnson
Part 1: The Art of Delivery
Playing a musical instrument is a technical craft. Expressing music, by contrast, has been viewed as an art, a view held so long that it is rarely questioned. An alternate view, presented in this essay, is that expressing music is also a craft: it is the craft of musical communication, the art of delivery. It is possible to master technical skills while lacking in communicative skills, and vice versa, because these skills have very little to do with each other. Today, musical mastery is often measured by the former skills, not the latter, yet the greatest musicians are those who are highly skilled in both crafts.
Musical Communication as the "Art of Delivery"[1] is the craft of handling musical material by technical means to touch the soul, raise the spirits, elevate the minds, and deeply move listeners with music. This essay presents eleven techniques which can be employed in the exercise of this craft.[2] These techniques, grounded in human cognition, are wholly derived from normal human speech and other perceptual experiences used in everyday communication. Each technique is natural to human expression.
These techniques are applicable to music intended to be listened to (as opposed to music meant only to be heard) in the same way that human speech is intended to be listened to. If the meaningful process of listening is secondary, these techniques are unnecessary, although both listeners and hearers will find their experiences enhanced when these techniques are employed in performance.
Below, each technique will be discussed and practical suggestions for their application will be provided; they are organized according to the intensity of the communication-enhancing effect each technique has on the listener.
1. The Synaesthesis Technique
In 1768, Jacob Adlung says of playing the harpsichord, "One must endeavor to use more arpeggios and such, rather than striking the keys together or playing too slowly since the strings cease vibrating right away."[3] Mozart and Chopin also insisted that the hands are never played together. Each of these musicians were aware of the concept of synaesthesis.[4]
Synaesthesia means multiple simultaneous perceptions. The brain is designed for perceiving multiple sensations at the same moment. With the senses of sight, smell, and taste, we expect our sensory experiences to be loaded with multiple simultaneous stimulations. The culinary art lives because people adore eating food that is multi-dimensional in flavor. Although specific taste sensations are localized on various parts of the human tongue, the experience of taste is a mingling of salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and savory (meaty) in various proportions, This effect is the effect of synaesthesia, and the senses of sight, smell, and hearing function similarly. Unfortunately, classical music is performed today in a manner designed to eliminate synaesthesia altogether, because many musicians are ill-informed about how the ear/brain makes sense of heard experiences.
Although the many different frequencies and timbres are detected differently by the ears, one 'hears' or perceives sounds, not as distinct and discreet frequencies and timbres, but as composites. When musical performance uses sounds (e.g. chords) as composites, the normal human ear hears only one sound. If the composer has written a four-note chord, and all the notes are played simultaneously, the normal listener will hear not four notes but one sound only: a rich sound, but nonetheless only one sound. If the performer endeavors to perform each note in the chord, so that the notes don't sound absolutely together or simultaneously, the normal listener will easily hear all four notes as well as the simultaneous chord, creating an experience of five sounds altogether.
The synaesthesis technique requires heard musical information to be slightly desynchronized, just enough for the mind of the listener to perceive all the timbres, all the pitches, all the melodies, all the rhythms, all the details, all the harmonies so that they all emerge into the consciousness of the listener. The human brain is so competent that it has no trouble to follow as many as 6 simultaneous streams of information as long as those lines or streams are functioning with total independence, even if they are "supposed to be together" as in music.
When notes in musical lines are "misaligned in time," this desynchronicity produces a certain independence of voices which, though more complex on the surface, is easier for the listener to follow. When these notes are played with perfect simultaneity, the brain reads the interval as a mere composite sound and quickly looses focus on the individual lines, paying attention instead to what is happening primarily in the lowest or the highest voices.
Only by consciously creating distinctions between lines can the performer make clear to the listener what is happening in any music which has more than one line. Differences in timbre and volume help to create more distinction but these devices never are as consistently successful at creating clear distinctions between the different lines in music as when the synaesthesis technique is used even to only a very slight degree. The synaesthesis technique depends on the ability of the performer to hear, follow, and create multiple voices in the music; voices that are clearly independent of the others yet always manage to agree.
Application: 1) Always play with one hand leading the other and vacillate between which of the two hands leads. Give up trying to be together in ensembles. The exception to this is when a simultaneous concurrence of the voices tells the brain that the music has come to an end. 2) Sing expressively each and every line or voice as independently as possible of the other lines or voices. Avoid being distracted by other voices or lines, or the listeners will hear the lapse in attention and cease to pay attention. 3) In ensembles, vacillate between having the upper voice lead the lower voice and the lower voice lead the upper voice. This vacillation needs to follow the logic of the musical lines and structure. When the upper voice leads, the music soars. When the lower voice leads the music, resisting forward motion, lingers.
2. The Inégal or Entasis Technique
Entasis is an ancient Greek term meaning tensioning. Speech that is delivered in a metrically perfect manner has the power to cause the listener's brain to shutdown and cease processing the meaning of what is being said...all within a few seconds of hearing such speech. The human brain needs the condition of constant or stable irregularity to remain alert and attentive. Regularity eliminates the feeling of discomfort which chaos, the erratic and irregular, often creates. The balance in tension between the feeling of predictability, which constancy (stability) provides, and the feeling of anticipation, which irregularity and unpredictability creates, is a state of entasis. (The opposite of entasis is stasis or staticness.) In normal human speech, Entasis is brought about by the flow of thought, and this flow is both irregular and constant. So it must be in music.
The French, in the 17th and 18th centuries, understood the importance of entasis; musicians who wrote about inégal were likely referring to this concept. The word actually means rough, irregular, unequal, but the conventional interpretation of the word betrays the real meaning by forcing it to conform to the present fashion for perfect metricallity in performance practice of old music. That interpretation suggests that inégal means perfectly regular “limping.” Had the French writers meant that they might have used the term for limping or the phrase égal inégal
Taking the term inégal at face value and understanding it from a cognitive point of view, it is clear that equalized inegality creates stasis, an absence of tension, and the listener is lulled into inattention.[5] Three notes of equal value (with two equal spaces between them) suffice to create a condition of boredom in the brain. Within the time it takes to hear three notes, the brain has noticed that the second event is like the first, that the third is like the second and the first, and predicts that the fourth will follow the pattern. When that prediction comes true, the brain either “tunes out” or looks elsewhere for something more interesting.
This phenomenon in the brain of a performer generates mistakes. In a static musical environment, mistakes easily become the meaning instead of the music and, as a result, the groundwork is laid for a paralyzing fear of performing experienced by many musicians. Learning to play with absolute rhythmic regularity, thereby anesthetizing the brain, is the major cause of performance anxiety today.
Metrical exactitude in musical performance also guarantees that most music is only heard but not listened to. It is the embodiment of slavishness in music, i.e. the music is the slave of the beat when it should be its master, exactly the opposite of what C.P.E. Bach suggested when he wrote that one should "endeavor to avoid everything mechanical and slavish. Play from the soul, not like a trained bird."[6]
This technique is especially challenging in its application, because musicians today are so rigidly trained in metrical regularity. Yet, like the beating of the heart, the musical pulse needs to fluctuate in speed as the emotional content of the music fluctuates. Like the natural shifting accents in speech, musical accents need to shift according to the meaning being expressed. To feel perfect, music must be metrically imperfect. Although first impressions of this technique may be discomforting (as with synaesthesia), performers can create order and logic out of otherwise irregular, unmetrical music-making by applying the techniques of Gesture, Syntactical/Voice-leading, and Recognition Signal (see #3-5 below)
Application: Avoid performing music in strict accordance with the beat. Because even two notes of equal value and space is enough to create a flattening of the listener's attention, avoid having more than three notes of equal value sound equally with equal spaces between them.
3. The Gesture or Inflection Technique
The Gesture or Inflection technique is designed to group verbal and musical information into larger units which have a shape easily recognized and remembered. Inflection (gesture) is the technique used in speech to organize the distinctly irregular nature of language. The specific shape of natural gestures or inflections, in speech or music, is a parabolic or exponential curve. (The egg is an excellent example of this elliptical shape.)
Consider this concept from a rhythmic perspective. Drumming the fingers on a table (the action usually moves from the pinky finger to the index finger) could mean either impatience or boredom. A slower motion of the fingers expresses the affect of waiting; a faster motion expresses impatience. Add to this impatient drumming a rhythmic regularity, and a sense of frustration is expressed. When waiting is added to the affects of frustration and impatience, the thumb becomes involved. Human beings interpret these complex gestures intuitively, but these motions can also be objectively described. Notice that the drumming action, initiated by the pinky finger, begins slowly and accelerates through the successive fingers until the last digit strikes the table. This acceleration, when plotted mathematically, would appear, not as a straight line to indicate regularly increasing speed but as a parabolic or exponential curve.
From a pitch perspective, the sounds of language move predictably through time, not in regular “bits” but in irregular patterns. The word "I," for example, begins with an "ah" vowel, shifts to an "eh" vowel and moves conclusively to an "ee" vowel sound. The pitch begins low and slow with the vowel "ah". The pitch and speed of utterance increase with the “eh” vowel and continues to get higher and faster with the shift to "ee". Again, plotted mathematically, these phenomena of both pitch and speed-of-utterance could be represented as exponential or parabolic curves.
Modifying sounds, such as the stretched “I” when a child whines,”I don’t want to,” or the clipped “I” when the same child demands “I want that” (or the drumming of patient vs. impatient fingers) produce very different meanings. The brain interprets flat, uninflected speech as the behavior of a listless, depressed, ill (or even dying) person. Likewise, the brain interprets highly inflected speech as the behavior of an animated, spirited, lively, robust, healthy person. The same is true in music. Musicians must be cognizant of their ability to influence these crucial subtleties of affect. A musician who is out-of-touch with this concept is a musician who has nothing to communicate.
Application: To realize these gestures in music, a performer must study nature and copy the shapes it has to offer. Organize musical information in gestures and mini-gestures which are natural to follow and understand.
4. The Syntactical or Voice Leading Technique
The Voice Leading technique comes from the syntactical or grammatical property of speech. Notice what happens to the above sentence when all the words are reordered to eliminate references. The or voice grammatical syntactical comes technique property speech leading of from. This reordered sentence can never make sense because every word has been treated as the equal of all the others. The order (or lack thereof) is designed to reinforce that equality; all the words in that sentence refer to no other words, and the result is a sentence which means absolutely nothing, even though each word has an independent recognizable meaning.
The human brain requires referential relationships to make sense of things. It is this syntactical "referential" property of language that underlies the logic in music.[7] Sense and meaning, both in language and in music, come from grouping words and notes into “meaningful” phrases or gestures. Each note or word must be executed to emphasize the grammatical sense or musical meaning: every note in the diatonic scale refers to the tonic just as all parts of a sentence refer in some way to the noun/subject. This is the heart of the voice leading technique. Although the human brain is "hard-wired" to grasp meaning through grammar and phrases in language, it is less accomplished in working out similar tendencies in music. Music goes by so quickly that, without the effects of voice-leading, one all-too-common response of the brain is to "tune out" and go into a sleep mode.
The outward technical devise used for the voice leading technique is legato (using the real meaning of legato which is "connected" as "connected in the mind" rather than merely in the ear) and the musical approach for this type of legato is cantabile (using the real meaning of cantabile which is "in a singing style" and taking that style to mean the style of a truly great singer).[8]
Application: Sing, as expressively as possible, every line in a score; then play the music exactly as expressively as just sung. Sing every note as expressively as the note requires and no less, then play it that way. Musicians are rarely able to be more expressive in their playing than in their singing.
5. The Recognition Signal or Harmonic technique
The Harmonic technique or Recognition Signal (also, cercare) creates a sense of harmony between the souls of the listener and speaker. Humans produce this "technical" utterance when acknowledging or agreeing with the person talking, and the absence of this utterance indicates a failure to communicate or to persuade. Musically, this technique is most effective when the speed and manner of execution mimic the spoken technique.
The recognition signal in human speech can express many things from the listener's point of view: the ability to follow a line of reasoning, a desire that the speaker continue, assent to a point of argument, or simple agreement. Aristotle defines recognition as "a change from ignorance to knowledge."[9] It is sounded, “uh-huh,” with the pitch rising at the end.[10] When listeners hear the recognition signal expressed in music, it allows them to follow what is happening in the music more easily, giving utter clarity to the music’s harmonies, and it establishes unanimity between performer and listener. For the listener, it is the vehicle of transformation between not knowing what is happening in the music, and knowing. Such enlightenment may even be articulated by some listeners as a spiritual experience.
Application: Performers must become attuned to how composers incorporate the Recognition Signal technique. Bach’s Italian concerto, for example, begins with a cercare, and his Chaconne in D-minor violin partita uses one after another. Beethoven's Pathetique sonata begins with a cercare followed by another with a few intervening notes. His 9th Symphony is full of this technique (although seldom realized in modern performances).
The speed of the Recognition Signal is its most important characteristic. If too slow, it sounds like an arpeggio; if too fast, it sounds like a grace note. For most uses, the correct speed is that at which one would most naturally say "pah-dum" with the accent on the second syllable. Placing the accent on the first syllable makes the affect too slow; and saying it without accent makes it too fast. Of course, speed is further influenced by the overarching affect of the music, whether leaning toward gravity or liveliness.
6. The Distortion or Attention-Grabbing Technique
This technique includes any device used to attract or place the listener's attention where the performer desires it to be. In speaking, a clearing of the throat is just such a device. Magicians employ this device, calling it “distraction.” In music, a vast array of techniques works in this way.
The distortion technique is heard when a singer allows the voice to crack or break for emotive effect, or when a vowel is changed during a sustained note. The “distortion” of the original vowel creates a feeling of increased interest on the long note for the listener. Violinists sometimes “crush” the string when playing a specific note to create a distortion which "attentively loads" the note. Portamento (in its conventional definition as a glide in pitch from one note to another) is another distortion technique, as are trills and other ornaments which add noise or “dirt” to the sound. The acciaccatura is an excellent example of "dirt" being added to a chord.
Although Aristotle does not use the word "dirt," he does, in fact use the word "error" in the following sense: "error may be justified, if the end of the art be thereby attained, that is the effect of this or any other part...is thus rendered more striking."[11] He adds to this the warning: "If the end might have been as well, or better, attained without violating the special rules of the poetic art, the error is not justified: for every kind of error should if possible be avoided." No clearer definition of poetic license can be had.
Granted, the distortion technique must be used judiciously, but its absence results in music of predictable sterility. The only thing perfect about perfection is that it is perfectly boring. The true aim for perfection in art is the feeling of perfection, not the fact. For example, the feeling of perfection in Botticelli's "Birth of Venus" is a direct result of the astonishing amount of distortion used in the painting’s proportions. While some listeners, interested primarily in the information presented in a musical composition, may prefer polished but boring perfection (the ideal performer for such listeners would be a computer or any machine designed primarily for data transmission), neither data transmission nor accountancy is appropriate to the realm of art. In this realm, where feeling is natural and genuine, there is bound to be some element of chaos and unpredictability. The distortion technique tempers mechanical perfection with impulses of nature and human feeling.
Application: Don’t be afraid of making ugly sounds especially if the affect you are after needs it to feel right. Ugliness like Beauty are relative things. We experience something as more beautiful when it is juxtaposed with something ugly. That is the appeal of stories like Beauty and the Beast. Conversely, music without dissonance is boring. Dissonance without Consonance feels irrelevant and harsh. Consonance without dissonance feels saccharine and dopey.
When learning to master ornamentation, understand that adding an ornament enhances the moment in the music to which it is added. Avoid ornamented or enhancing moments that are already loaded with some other more effective technique of enhancing. Since the great composers clearly understood these techniques, they wrote them into the scores so that musicians would know which technique they were asking for. The ornaments a composer wrote into the music were those considered to be essential and therefore obligatory. However, more could be added ad libitum as needed depending on the instrument, the room acoustics, and the tempo.
Zest is the principle effect of the distortion technique. Even a disconsolate affect needs zest to communicate the degree of intensity of the feeling. Poetic license grants every performer the freedom to create an enhanced experience of feeling for the listener by whatever means necessary. It is not, however, a certificate of refined or sensitive taste. That is the responsibility of the performer. That is, everything is allowed, but always be sensible to a quality of integrity so that the music, not the playing, remains foremost in the hearts of the listeners.
7. The Anxiety Free or "Sans souci" Technique
This technique is named sans souci, because it is designed to create moments in the music which give the feeling of shrugging the shoulders, throwing up the hands in a gesture to say, "Don't take all this so seriously! Live a little! Stop controlling! Let go! Be happy! Don't worry so much! In other words, sans souci: without a care!
When the alignment of notes in the score suggests that they be performed strictly and simultaneously, they may be purposely jumbled or played in an irregular or a staggering manner to create a careless (sans souci) effect. This technique gives music a feeling of relaxed effortlessness, whether one uses the term sans souci, or tempo rubato, or “jazzy,” disjointed, etc.
Listeners can only truly enjoy listening when a sans souci environment and attitude prevails. This technique dispels anxiety and self-consciousness in the performer, and this transforms not only the performer’s experience but also the reception of the listener, for anxiety rubs off on all who observe it. Mechanical, metrical, and regular playing creates anxiety; inégal, irregular, and logical playing eliminate anxiety. Overconcern with relatively meaningless detail creates anxiety; sweeping gestures dispel anxiety. Obsession with accuracy creates anxiety; focusing on meaning and purpose dispel anxiety. Concern about the opinion or others creates anxiety; carelessness of the opinion of others dispels anxiety. Self consciousness creates anxiety; confidence and a total lack of self consciousness dispel anxiety. That is the function of sans souci.
Application: Sans souci is the antithesis to how most classical musicians are taught. Applying this technique is as much about attitude as about specific procedures. Study the musical score for every opportunity to “shrug the shoulders.” Try every passage to see if it can't be improved by having staggering the lines staggered by exactly one half the notated value. Sometimes the bass may lead, sometimes the treble.[12]
8. The Stride Technique
St. Lambert, in his preface to his compositions, states that the normal tempo in music is that of a man walking.[13] Although people walk at different tempi for different purposes, observation bears out that those people walking, intending to get someplace specific, all walk at the same tempo.[14] This tempo is 116 beats per minute, and besides walking, it can be observed to occur in other contexts as well.
Speech, for example, has the intention of reaching the end of a specific thought (just as music has the intention of reaching a cadence). People speak with the normal speech accents occurring at a rate of 116 per minute, but primarily when there is something specific and goal-oriented to be said. People who, by temperament, personality, persuasion, or by habit, speak faster or slower than this speed stand out. Speaking slower than 116, they are perceived as intolerably dull or slow witted; there is a painful slothfulness or self-consciousness in their speaking demeanor. Speaking faster than 116, people are perceived as untrustworthy; fast speech is associated with trying to talk others into doing things they don't want to do.
At the same time that the normal accents of speech occur at 116 beats per minute, moments of pause or emphasis, moments between phrases, or the moments of silence between exchanges of speakers in conversation occur at 72 beats per minute.[15] There are also a few other tempi which can be observed to work in spoken contexts. These tempi are multiples or divisions of 116 and 72: 58 (one half of 116), 144 (twice 72), 96 (4 times 72 divided by 3, a 3:4 ratio), 108 (3 times 72 divided by 2, a ratio of 3:2), 87 (116 times 3 divided by 4, a 3:4 ratio), etc.[16]
These observations suggest that the human brain processes heard information at a precise rate of flow. That rate may change depending on the significance, density, importance, intensity, or degree of urgency of the information. If the information flows at a rate faster than it can be processed and comprehended, one feels overwhelmed. If it flows at a rate slower than it can be processed and comprehended, one feels impatient, irritated, or bored by the manner of delivery.
If the intensity of content decreases, while the rate of flow remains constant, the perception will be that the flow has slowed. Thus, as intensity of content decreases, the speed of flow must increase, lest the mind become bored. Conversely, if the intensity of content increases, but the rate of flow remains the same, the mind assumes that the speed has increased; the speed must therefore decrease or the mind will soon feel overwhelmed. This phenomenon is an inverse proportion: the more that is happening in music, the slower the tempo needs to be. The less that is happening in the heard music, the faster the tempo needs to be.
Performances of classical music today, frequently fail to adapt appropriately to the above observations. In performing early repertoire, musicians feel compelled to play too fast, because their delivery lacks interest or meaning. Excessive speed helps bridge the musical emptiness between notes but is a cheap trick to stave off the listener boredom. In later repertoire, where musicians are commonly subjected to expectations of mathematically accurate performance, slower tempi are often taken to allow the incorporation of techniques for warming the sound in otherwise cold examples of perfect data delivery. These techniques include continuous vibrato, acceleration and deceleration of a predictable and regular sort, and predictably regular gradations of change in volume (techniques which when applied to speech produce the silliest, most ridiculous effect). These "warming" techniques, used to take the chill off otherwise stiff passionless performances, divert the listener's attention away from unimaginative playing.
Tempi selection in music needs to account for the rate of flow as it changes depending on the significance, density, importance, intensity, or degree of urgency of the information, as well as the affect of the piece. All of the musical communication techniques discussed in this article, when implemented in performance, may require tempi slightly slower than one is used to, but all depends on the information intensity of the score. In all cases, failure to hit upon the right tempo will create the effect of forcing, if the tempo is slightly too slow, or racing if it is slightly to fast.
Application: Be aware of opportunities in music (a section, movement, or entire piece) to utilize a tempo of 116 or 72 and test these tempi on listeners. If appropriately chosen, these tempi should make music feel more natural to listeners, although it may be more challenging to play. Many composers, however, took these tempi into account, and the music will actually be easier and more natural to play at these tempi.
9. The Evaporation or Mystery Technique
This technique is best executed on dynamic instruments such as the clavichord, fortepiano, pianoforte, violins and such, lutes and guitars, as well the voice. The evaporation technique is a diminishing of the volume of sound on the end of a phrase until it altogether disappears or evaporates.[17] Evaporation forces the mind of the listener to finish the phrase as it disappears, thus, through the power of suggestion, a performer can lure the listener on a path of his or her own making. While the parts of the music subjected too evaporation are normally less important artistically, they may take on special unconscious significance in the listener’s mind. Whatever is mysterious and hidden tantalizes the soul; this is the perennial lure of the spiritual realm. Brains invariably want what they can't have.
Cognitively speaking, the brain strives to lock on to whatever appears to lie just beyond its reach. For example, though the eye is designed to perceive light, the eye is easily attracted to shadow. In speech, when ideas are stated flatly and objectively, the mind tends to treat them as unimportant (a fault of much technical writing). When ideas are alluded to or suggested by inference, the mind won't be satisfied until it puzzles them out. When information is ever present, it becomes part of the landscape and the information is easily ignored; when ideas are clearly and creatively expressed with a strong point of view, the information is processed and accepted or rejected by the mind; in either case the information can't be ignored.
Musically, when sound is waxing and waning, strongly and unpredictably, the mind of the listener is able to grasp more easily how the ideas are wrought and grouped. In a performance shaded by the evaporation technique, listeners will experience the paradox between an understated phrase ending and the strong attention-focusing effect created by evaporation. In this way, the listener becomes a co-creator with the performer and composer.
Application: Choose particularly unimportant moments in the music to “evaporate”, like the ends of phrases or arpeggiated chords; moments which would otherwise fall flat. Then prepare the minds of the listeners by gradually diminishing the volume of the sound so that only the last note, though played, is completely silent. This only works in live performances where the listeners can see the note being played but not hear it. In recordings, the note needs to be heard but also needs to be so soft that it causes the listener to feel the evaporation effect. Poetic license and a sense of what works are the best guides.
10. The Timing or Hesitation Technique
This technique requires hesitation just a moment before playing the most important note in a line. Another expression of this technique is to linger on a note for much longer than its written value. This technique manipulates the listener's expectations of 1) what note is going to sound, 2) when it actually sounds, and 3) when it stops sounding. When a climactic note is slightly delayed by the performer, the listener has just enough time to take the suggestion and mentally fill in the note before the performer finally makes the note sound.
Comedians are well-known to use this technique for humorous effect, changing the timing of an expected word to one that is unexpected. Public speakers also use this important rhetorical technique, but those who overuse it come across as contrived and unconvincing. The same holds true for musicians. As always, unpredictability is key to creating naturalness of effect.
The cognitive partner of hesitation is anticipation: anticipation is created by building up assumption on assumption about what will happen. When the event which should occur fails to happen at the expected time, there exists a moment of disappointment. Disappointment, however, is soon transformed into a rush of pleasure when the anticipated event is consummated. The art is always in the timing.
Application: Know what notes in the music are the highest in pitch, strongest in accent but weakest in affect, most obvious and predictable, or the climax of the piece. Then, either delay a moment before playing them or hold them longer than written. The moment the delay or the holding becomes obvious, as doing something unusual, the hold or the delay is too long.
The purpose is to catch the attention of the listener unawares in order to create the effect of a quickening of the attention. The moment that effect happens for the listeners is the moment the music must continue to its inevitable conclusion.
11. The "Excrucis" Technique
The word excrucis is derived from the Latin ex, meaning “out of,” and crux, meaning “cross.” Excrucis is, literally, “out of cross” or “out of crossing.” This technique involves dissonance treatment. When musical lines, each expressively following its own inexorably logical path, cross and produce an extreme dissonance, followed by an elegant and beautiful resolution, the excrucis technique, highlighting this intense movement rhythmically or dynamically, is ideally suited for use. These moments, properly treated, produce some of the most "excruciatingly" beautiful effects of which music is capable.
The cognitive effect of the excrusis technique is deeply related to basic human emotion. This effect is capable of approaching the almost spiritual profundity of complex human interaction, such as an intense hug imbued simultaneously with feelings of love, loss, reassurance, pain: it feels so good it hurts.
Application: Identify and observe the interplay and crossing of musical lines. Making the most of such voice crossings requires momentarily slowing down the action. This slowing, to emphasize the "grinding" effect as the dissonances rub and grate against each other, should allow the listener to notice exactly what is happening, without causing a loss of flow.
Epilogue
According to Aristotle, in Poetics (XXI), "The perfection of style is to be clear without being mean (commonplace)." The purpose behind these eleven techniques, for the performer, is to connect musical information into clear and meaningful phrases for the listener to help make sense of the score, to help the listener know what is important and what is unimportant. The brain needs constant and intense stimulation in the form of unpredictability, clarity of reference, clarity of relationship, uninterrupted flow of idea, and the occasional enigma in order to maintain an alert, attentive, and focused frame of mind.[18]
These techniques enhance musical communication because they induce and support a high degree of awareness in both the listener and the performer. Performance will either support the listener’s attention or detract from it. (The mere presence of sound in a room is no guarantor of attention, only passive exposure.) Full attention ensures receptiveness to the composer’s meaning. When music is performed to maximize the listener’s attention level, details of compositional technique and structure become intelligible and meaningful to the normal listener without years of formal musical training.
To be effective, these techniques must be made as obvious as possible without any one technique standing in the center of attention. Whenever possible, try to use these techniques simultaneously so it is impossible to use one at the exclusion of the others. Beware that, if one can notice the technical means of generating an effect, the technique is being employed improperly. It is a delicate balancing act to use a technique or techniques without having the technical aspect become the focus of attention. (As the saying goes: “Art disguises itself.”) Performers who lapse into mechanical habits of playing music, using occasionally only one or two of these techniques, anesthetize the brain while seeking to interest the mind. This is a confusing state to inflict upon any listener.
When all of these techniques are used appropriately in a performance, the essence of the music is efficiently communicated by the performer and easily received by the listeners. Effective and pleasing execution in music was referred to in the 18th century by the French term bon gout. Bon gout can only exist when intense flavors are present, and it implies a strongly cultivated sense of how to balance these flavors (read: cognitive techniques) to express the meaning and affect suggested by the composer. Performers should embrace these eleven cognitive techniques; the fear of mauvais gout creates players who play sans gout. Skillful use of these techniques, creating the effect of playing "from the soul," produces performances that deeply touch and move all who listen. This is the function and purpose of the “Art of Delivery”
Part 2: On Affect
What is Affect?
Affect is the backbone of nonverbal communication. As the nonverbal meaning of such communication, it suggests the expression of an emotion, a state of being, a physical state, a state of mind, or an attitude. Being nonverbal, Affect is applicable to every artistic form, painting, music, acting, dance, etc. (Indeed, each art has its own way of expressing Affect.) Music is nonverbal communication in the form of sound. If Affect is missing in music all that remains are pitches (either in vertical structures, Harmony, or in linear structures, Melody) moving in time (Rhythm). Affect allows music to take on a life of its own and express what the performer intends; otherwise, meaning does not exist except by inference. For the listener, music without affect is like acting without vocal inflection or facial expression.
One effective way to illustrate Affect is to examine the most sophisticated use of affect developed in the 20th century, cartoon animation. Cartoon characters do not exist; they exist only as fictional characters appearing on the screen through the magical craft of animation. Because animators understood affect, they could create characters that feel real and palpable to us; they could convince an audience that these characters exist. To suggest characters with personality, meaning, and soul, animators had to study gestures, poses, expressions (and the order in which they occurred). In other words, animators had to be diligent students of Affect.
Affect should not be confused with true states of emotion, etc. A person’s anger or confusion or love is not affect, because those feelings are real and amazingly complex. “Acting’ like one is angry or confused or in love, however, is a demonstration of affect. Affect, especially in music, makes simple all of the complexities of feeling; it makes the feeling clear and unmistakable to the listener and relates to the listener’s soul.
The soul responds to Affect because it is the language of the soul. Affect is the language of the soul. As a common language, It allows communication among souls. . This is why learning about Affect, thinking about Affect, performing with Affect, expressing Affect, and mastering Affect is the most important challenge of musicians, artists, dancers, architects, actors, writers, poets, or playwrights.
Philosophical relativism has curiously created a strong antipathy to the idea of Affect, as though the concept were somehow dangerous, for there are intelligent people and musicians who dismiss the whole idea of Universals. Affect happens to be one clear Universal, because affect happens to be how organisms with brains, however primitive (even insects, spiders, reptiles, and birds communicate affectively), relate and communicate one with another. And anyone who has been around animals knows this to be true, because they communicate directly through gesture and non-verbal utterances. Musicians who dismiss this approach to expression usually play music as though running through a list from the beginning to the end. Each musician must decide personally to pay attention to Affect, express Affect, think about better ways to communicate Affect, or to ignore Affect altogether. But remember, what you decide materially affects relationship with your own soul, for better or worse. Where music is concerned, the greatest musical minds embraced Affect. You must choose to be in their company or not.
Learning the Language of Affect
Affect is the suggestion of a feeling, not the feeling itself. Affect is also objective; observers or listeners receive/interpret the same meaning from these expressions and gestures. Learning to manage and master Affect, eliminating all possible confusion, is therefore imperative for anyone involved in any kind of artistic nonverbal communication.
In acting, for example, when a character in a play says or does something which suggests that he or she is suspicious, a good actor will do whatever is required to create the suggestion of suspiciousness. The only way an actor will know if he or she is successful is if the audience feels that the character is suspicious. Should the audience think otherwise, the actor has failed. Furthermore, if the audience merely knows that the character is suspicious but doesn't feel it, then the actor has also failed. One can often know many things which are not necessarily felt; those things which are known are less engaging than those things which are felt. If the actor has not generated the feeling of suspicion in the audience, the actor has failed. Only when the audience feels conviction about the suspicious nature of the character can the actor be said to have succeeded.
Affect communicates directly and unambiguously with the soul of the receiver. Infants, for example, respond to an affect even if they don't understand the words. The same is true for animals. The manner of expression, more than the content of the words, is what is objectively received and nonverbally understood. The human response to the tone and gesture of a mother’s love is not unlike the human response to music. This phenomenon makes music extraordinarily compelling to humans.
Unfortunately, communication is breaking down in many arenas of the artistic world. Declining concert attendance, resulting in financial insolvency for even some of the most famous musical institutions, has led to much introspection. Too often, inattentive, disengaged listeners are blamed for their lagging commitment to music, while, in fact, the spread of non-affective music-making may lie at the root of the situation. Musicians ignore Affect to their own peril.
Perhaps the best way to learn to communicate affect is to study children when they are being naturally expressive. In very young children, the gestures used to convey affect are similar from one child to the next. These affective gestures are not learned; they are innate to the human species. Indeed, expressing all the emotions, states of mind, attitudes, physical states and states of being are part of what it is to be human. Learning to express affect requires one to pay attention to and remember the gestures that make up each affect. Focus on affect and meaning and everything is made decidedly easier.
The Structure of Human Affect
Human beings are complex organisms with complex inner lives. Music, in its most elevated manifestation, is the only form of aesthetic expression which is capable of capturing and expressing the inner life of the soul.
In life, Affect is the suggestion of the expression of 1) an emotion, 2) a physical state, 3) a state of mind, or 4) an attitude. Typically, all four of these states are expressed simultaneously and continuously. The same is true in great music and performance, because music is rooted in human nature.[19]
When there is inherent conflict in these four states, the aesthetic result is far more vivid and compelling. Paradox is good; this tension makes the real difference between exhalted art and art which is merely great (or less great). Good art expresses only three of the possible four affects. Mediocre works express two, while bad works express but one (or zero).
Persons wishing to improve their artistic communication through Affect would be well-advised to compile a list of Affects organized by the four categories outlined above. Without investing in this task, one risks not being able to distinguish or identify affects and not being able to understand how they differ from emotions. The list below is by no means definitive, but suggests what such a list might look like:
Physical Emotional Mental Spiritual
Slothful anguish pensive compassion
brisk loathing serious humility
graceful exuberant ponder forbearance
elegant appalled question patience
pliant frustrated knowing directness
mellifluous rage uncertain intensity
nauseous despair certain love
tired fear remembering joy
painful seething theorize peace
energetic impatient speculate exuberant
leaping happy formulate goodness
jumping sad fantasize confidence
running mad predict restraint
wobbling anxious studying impartial
dancing indifferent noticing tolerant
skipping melancholy searching accepting
hopping tormented categorizing encompassing
frolicking nostalgic skeptical multidimensional
striding sentimental provocative greed
strutting yearning confusion hubris
throwing longing judging pride
gesticulating lonely realizing penance
sultry wishing vexation remorse
soothing craving surprise contrition
heaving ardor disputatious sorrow
craving vengeance rationalizing lamentation
pompous fury agitated recognition
restful jealousy dubious miserable
choking desire pleased arrogance
restless revenge alarmed haughtiness
charming guilt routine boldness
flowing scorn mean business perfidy
barrage scolding stating shame
relaxed manipulating descriptive horror
slow dejection sterile acknowledging
smooth jovial trust apologetic
trotting distress mistrust wondering
antiseptic unsureness cognizant directional
sleazy steady controlling characterizing
threatening unsteady calculating beauty
jolly nervous hesitating clean
laughing empty interested cynical
Application: As an interesting exercise, take one affect at random from each column and invent a moment in life when all four affects could reasonably occur simultaneously. Choose, for instance, “trotting” (physical), “empty” (emotional), “dubious” (mental), and “apologetic” (mental), and think of a moment in any person's life when trotting, emptiness, feeling dubious or doubtful, and feeling apologetic would naturally occur. One possible scenario or “vignette” might be: hurting another person unintentionally, being abandoned by that person, pursuing that person to ask forgiveness, but being ultimately rejected, and finally feeling doubt about the relationship, and emptiness.
Great music is characterized by either a single affective vignette or a series of short vignettes which give the listener an affective view of the soul for a moment or series of connected moments.
Conclusion
No other art form has the power to express affective moments in the lives of ordinary people as much as music. Great music performed without clear affect is like viewing a great painting in a room without light; although one might discern the intention of affect, the observer can't access it. The true art of the performer is to reveal affect, clearly and unambiguously, to the music lover. Interestingly, as self-evidently true is this might be to most people, all too many musicians reject the importance of Affect in music, preferring instead to adhere to the standard and predictably monotonous style of performing classical music prevalent today. What is worse is when such musicians discover that they are unable to have a career in musical performance and end up teaching in schools and conservatories of music, in effect go on to instill in young impressionable musicians the idea that music is all about note and metrical accuracy and not about communication of affect for the pleasure of listeners.
To be faithful to the art in music, the performer must be hyperaware of affective effects -- how, for example, even three notes within a score can affect the sensitive listener. The eleven cognitive techniques outlined in this essay ensure that performer fully engages the listener in the music; incorporating the additional ideas regarding Affect promises mastery in virtually any art. Talent has little to do with such mastery, only the hard work of understanding and learning to "speak" the language of the soul.
Footnotes:
[1] (which is what Aristotle calls the Modes of Utterance, Poetics XIX)
[2] The eleven cognitive/communication techniques are designed to enhance musical communication rather than substitute for musicality. Being musical is a spiritual quality and it is this quality which indeed resides in the realm of art. If there is a downside to these techniques, it is that if a musician isn't deeply spiritual, these cognitive techniques will reveal that fact to the listener. If a musician is spiritual, these cognitive techniques reveal this reality clearly. The true art of musical performance fuses the crafts of score-realization/musical-communication with the spiritual substance of the musician.
[3] Musica Mechanica Organoedi, vol. 2 chapter 22 paragraph 522
[4] Giovanni Tosi, in his treatise on singing titled, The Art of the Florid Song, published in 1736, uses the term vacillare to describe the effect of vacillating in the melody from being before the bass to lagging behind the bass. He states that "the singer should endeavor to sing before the beat or after the beat and never with it. Tosi says of this effect that it "is one of the most beautiful effects in music." Bach, in manuscripts of his keyboard pieces, demonstrates vacillare just as Tosi recommends. An inspection of his keyboard manuscripts reveals that the vertical alignment of the notes of the right hand either precede or follow the notes of the left hand. About 60% of time the right hand notes precede the left hand notes and about 40% follow the left hand. (Such alignment issues do not arise in Bach’s orchestral scores.) Similarly, Forqueray gives instructions in his published arrangement for harpsichord of his fathers Pieces for Viola da Gamba that the player play the music exactly as it appears on the printed page. The pieces that follow show the right and left hand notes being vertically non-aligned even to the extent that some whole notes in the left hand appear in the middle of the measure. Giulio Caccini, in his Nuove musiche e nuove maniera di scriverle (Florence, 1614), suggests something very similar to vacillare when he writes: "Sprezzatura is that elegance given to a melody by several technically-incorrect eights or sixteenths on different tones, technically-incorrect with respect to their timing, thus freeing the melody from a certain narrow limitation and dryness and making it pleasant, free, and airy, just as in common speech, where eloquence and invention make affable and sweet the matters being expounded upon."
[5] In his treatise on Poetics (XXIV), Aristotle observed that "sameness of incident soon produces satiety."
[6] in his Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments,
[7] This is the logic needed to make the inégal or entasis technique work most successfully.
[8] Bach was renowned for his cantabile playing. Indeed, a letter dated 12 April 1842 written by F.K.Griepenkerl (a student of N. Forkel) relates that "Bach himself, his sons, and Forkel performed the masterpieces with such a profound declamation that they sounded like polyphonic songs sung by individual great artists; all means of good singing were thereby brought into use. No cercare, no portamento was missing. [author’s emphasis] There was even breathing at the right places...Bach's pieces want to be sung with the maximum of Art."
[9] section X of his Poetics,
[10] It is extremely interesting that the word cercare" (pronounced chair-cár-e) as used by Griepenkerl (see footnote 8) is defined in Riemann's Musiklexicon as a 17th century Italian ornament in which the upper or lower auxiliary note is performed softly and suddenly to the main note. This is exactly how the recognition signal is expressed. In otherwords, the recognition signal is a cercare. Regrettable, the cercare is often frowned on today as being in exceedingly bad taste for classical singers.
[11] (Poetics, XXV)
[12] Further references to this in Türk's treatise on Playing the Clavier under tempo rubato
[13]
[14] With the one condition that the observed people are healthy, able, strong, and normally formed, large or small, young or old, the tempo is the same.
[15] It is perhaps no coincidence that, dividing 116 by 1.618, the number needed to calculate the ratio of the "Golden" proportion, the result is 72 (71.69).
[16] These observations can be replicated by the reader in a simple way. Place a metronome, set it at 116, in front of a television and observe the beat coincidences of walking paces and spoken accents. Then set the metronome at 72 and observe, in speech, the speed of emphatic moments, pauses, phrases, etc. Try setting the tempi slightly off from 116 and 72 (say, 118 or 74, or 114 or 70) to see if those tempi produce the same level of coincidence.
[17] The technique is also used in cinema where it is called the fade.
[18] At a macro level, these techniques must be further considered within the larger concept of flow. C.P.E. Bach describes the importance of flow in performance. Although Bach's use of the word "flowing" has been perverted today to mean metronomically constant and continuous, behavior he described as both mechanical and slavish (or “commonplace,” as described by Aristotle), Bach refers to flow as in “flow of thought.” Whether musical or verbal, flow must indeed be strictly maintained, but supported by the intention to say something specific. Constant and continuous sound has no such requirement. Tempo can be maintained yet the performance may be devoid of musical thought; it is musical thought which must flow, and the notes are necessary only to carry that flow. Musical thought must flow like a great river: the eddies, whirlpools, currents, and swirls on the river’s surface never stop the collective movement of the whole river...it flows on, come what may. So it should be with musical thought.
[19] C.P.E. Bach's insistence on maintaining a single affect throughout a piece indicates the value he placed on integrity of affect in music. Empfindsam music is more like an affective conflict or argument in which, ideally, all four affects are exhibited in a work and are brought together in a harmony of affect at the end of the piece.
Кейс Хилл и Мариан Плогер 2005
Мы представляем этот очерк в двух частях, поскольку каждая часть является конкретным аспектом мастерства музыкального общения, которые взаимосвязаны. Один аспект не важнее другого. Применение этих аспектов вместе необходимо, чтобы было возможно использовать их в полную силу для создания вдохновляющего исполнения музыки. Думаю, нашим читателям было бы интересно знать, что техники и концепции, представленные здесь протестированы музыкантами, простыми слушателями, а также теми, кого можно назвать враждебно настроенными слушателями. Враждебно настроенные слушатели - это те, которые настроены строго отрицательно по отношению к классической музыке. Когда техники были использованы при игре музыки в течение нашего представления, результат для музыкантов оказался смешанным, то есть, около 95% музыкантов понравились их ощущения от музыки, 5% музыкантов отнеслись резко отрицательно к тому, что по их мнению, противоречило их понятиям о том, как должна исполняться музыка и выразили открытый антагонизм к техникам. Что касается простых слушателей, 100% были вдохновлены результатом прослушивания, 100% враждебно настроенных слушателей были приятно удивлены тем, что они услышали. Во время исполнения, похоже, они обнаружили, что проблема, которая была связана с классической музыкой, была вызвана скорее тем, как эта музыка была исполнена, а не незнанием этой музыки, либо же музыкой как таковой. Мы обнаружили, что враждебно настроенные слушатели невероятно умны и восприимчивы, что подтверждается отсутствием у них терпения для того чтобы продолжать слушать музыку, исполняемую в бессвязной манере. Кроме того, этих равнодушных, враждебно настроенных слушателей попросили рассказать исполнителям о том, что им нужно сделать, чтобы их исполнение было лучше. Когда исполнители отвечали им в любящей и уступчивой манере, принимая их предложения, слушатели отвечали одобрительными возгласами в адрес музыкантов и их музыки. Некоторые из слушателей говорят, что были доведены до слез исполнением, что является значимым критерием для исполнения великой музыки, не так ли? Единогласно, слушатели пришли к общему согласию в том, что должны делать исполнители для того, чтобы музыка показалась им живой. Те предложения, которые были сделаны слушателями практически слово в слово совпадают с тем, что мы представляем в первой части - Искусство преподнесения материала.
Провести такого рода эксперименты и получить связанный с ними опыт может и должен каждый, кто серьезно намерен изучить мастерство музыкального общения , чтобы полностью убедиться в том, что эти техники на самом деле работают так, как об этом заявлено нами. Недостаточно, принимать их на веру. Они должны быть протестированы на слушателях всех типов. Тем не менее, особую осторожность нужно соблюдать при работе с подготовленными музыкантами, поскольку они обычно имеют слишком много предубеждений, находясь под влиянием принципов современного исполнительства классической музыки, в котором эти техники почти не встречаются. Почему они испытывают враждебность и антагонизм? Мы подозреваем, что враждебность с обеих сторон является следствием неправильного представления сторон друг о друге. Музыканты обычно считают, что обычные люди грубы и недалеки в своих вкусах, потому не стоит их рассматривать как серьезных слушателей. Слушатели в свою очередь навешивают ярлык неконтактных, безразличных, изнеженных, склонных к снобизму персон, которых и слушать не стоит. Такой мы видим ситуацию, сложившуюся вокруг классической музыки, она трагична, поскольку предназначение музыки было, во многих случаях, выражать глубокую и сильную любовь и обычно исполнялась живо и захватывающе ко всеобщей радости. В настоящее время, классическая музыка ассоциируется со страхом и злом (верьте этому или нет!!) в наших культурных клише. Например, в кино слишком часто показывают как негодяи, во время того, как они слушают классическую музыку, одновременно готовят заказное убийство, классические музыканты изображены как эгоистичные, зацикленные на себе, ублюдки без капли сострадания или же как не вполне психически адекватные личности; насилие и огромные взрывы слишком часто сопровождаются величайшими произведениями из когда-либо написанной классической музыки. Это означает, что каждый из нас может сделать свой вклад, чтобы изменять эту мрачную ситуацию на более радостную ... не только для музыкантов. Именно поэтому мы представили здесь этот очерк. Любопытный побочный эффект, который наблюдается от применения вышеупомянутых техник и концепций профессиональными музыкантами, заключается в преображении обычного исполнительства в игру, в которой видны все признаки настоящего музыкального мастерства. Еще более любопытным является то, что если избегать применения этих техник, то даже при самом виртуозном исполнении, равно как и очень музыкальном с точки зрения самых высоких общепринятых стандартов, музыка воспринимается как полноценная, но при этом в ней не достает мастерства. Эти эффекты не являются трудноразличимыми, поскольку практически каждый нормальный обычный человек может легко заметить наличие мастерства. Следовательно, любой музыкант который хочет использовать этот побочный эффект, должен овладеть тем, о чем пойдет речь ниже.
Часть 1: Искусство Преподнесения
Игра на музыкальном инструменте это ремесло, требующее технической подготовки. Донесение смысла музыки, в качестве контраста, рассматривается как искусство. Этот взгляд преобладает столь долгое время, что мы редко задаем себе вопрос о том, может ли быть иначе. Цель этого очерка в том, чтобы дойти до истины в этом вопросе и предложить альтернативный взгляд. Он заключается в том, что донесение музыкального смысла является также своего рода ремеслом. Это ремесло заключается в умелой подаче материала. Можно очень хорошо владеть инструментом, для того, чтобы точно воспроизвести нотный текст, и при этом не быть в состоянии донести его до слушателя. Можно плохо владеть технической стороны игры, но при этом владеть искусством подачи в гораздо большей степени. Таким образом выясняется, что эти навыки представляют собой совершенно отдельные друг от друга вещи.
Музыкальное Общение с точки зрения "Искусства Преподнесения" (которые Аристотель называет Способы Высказывания (Элементы речи, Поэтика XIX), - это технические приемы, созданные для того, чтобы улучшить восприятие и понимание музыки у обычных любителей музыки. Эти средства созданы для того, чтобы прикоснуться к душам, оживить дух, взбодрить ум и глубоко затронуть слушателей. Для этого здесь представлены одиннадцать техник. Они предназначены чтобы подавать музыкальный материал в формах, которые человеческий мозг может легко обработать и понять. Действенность и сила техник связана с их познавательным (когнитивным) аспектом. Фактически, все эти техники целиком исходят из обычной человеческой речи и нашего повседневного опыта использования речи и ее восприятия для общения с другими. Все они являются естественными для человеческого общения.
Одиннадцать когнитивных/коммуникационных методов предназначены для лучшего качества донесения музыки, в то же время они не являются заменой музыкальности. Музыкальность является духовным качеством и находится в области искусства. Обратная сторона этих методов может проявиться в тех случаях, когда музыкант не является глубоко духовным человеком, и в восприятии слушателей это отразится в большей степени. Если музыкант является духовно развитой личностью, то техники покажут этот факт яснее. Настоящее искусство исполнения сплавляет в единое навыки точного воспроизведения текста на инструменте с мастерством музыкального общения.
Одиннадцать техник являются практическими инструментами , а не просто не теоретическими понятиями. В конце описания каждой техники мы поместили предложения по практическому их применению, особенно их применение может быть неоднозначным. Чрезвычайно важно применять эти техники на практике, в противном случае вы не получите никакого эффекта.
Музыку можно разделить на два типа - та которая воспринимается как звуковой раздражитель, и та, которую слушают, в том же смысле, как и слушают речь. Одиннадцать когнитивных техник имеют смысл только для второго типа. Для первого типа эти техники не являются необходимыми. Тем не менее, даже в первом случае музыка оказывает более благоприятное впечатление при использовании техник.
Далее следует описание одиннадцати когнитивных техник которые позволяют усовершенствовать. Они описаны в порядке убывания силы своего воздействия на слушателя.
1. Техника синестезии
Синестезия означает множественное одновременное восприятие. Мозг предназначен для того, чтобы воспринимать многочисленные ощущения в один и тот же момент времени. Наш сенсорный опыт, как правило, происходит одновременно в нескольких областях. Даже простой пирог является комбинацией разных вкусов фрукта, теста, сахара, соли, специй, яиц, масла, и кулинарных эффектов. Кулинарное искусство живет, поскольку люди наслаждаются, потребляя пищу, столь разноплановую на вкус. В каждом блюде смешиваются соленый, кислый, сладкий, горький, мясной вкус в различных пропорциях. Предположительно мы различаем разные вкусы различными частями языка. Это и создает эффект синестезии. Чувства зрения и запаха функционируют аналогично. В значительной мере удовольствие при просмотре картин Моне зависит от возможности видеть все цвета палитры в каждом квадратном сантиметре его лучших картин. Слуховое восприятие тоже нуждается в стимулах такого рода. На сегодняшний день классическая музыка исполняется в манере, которая исключает синестезию полностью. Это является следствием незнания среди музыкантов того, как слух или мозг осмысливает услышанное.
Хотя разные частоты и тембры распознаются слухом по-разному, мы "слышим" или воспринимаем музыкальные и другие обычные одновременные звуки как некий единый сложный звук вместо того чтобы воспринимать некие дискретные частоты и тембры. Когда в музыке встречаются аккорды, нормальный человеческий слух воспринимает его как один звук. Если композитор написал четырехзвучный аккорд, и все звуки исполнялись бы одновременно, одновременно, обычный слушатель услышит не четыре звука а только один; богатый, но тем не менее только один звук. Если исполнитель пытается сыграть каждый звук в аккорде, чтобы звуки не звучали совершенно одновременно, обычный слушатель легко услышит все четыре звука и аккорд одновременно. Это возможность услышать в общей сложности пять звуков.
Эта техника требует слегка десинхронизировать музыкальную информацию, чтобы слушатель мог воспринимать все тембры, все звуки, все мелодии, все ритмы, все детали, всю гармонию чтобы они полностью проявились в сознании обычного любителя музыки.
Нормальный человеческий мозг достаточно развит, что у ему не составляет труда отслеживать до 6 одновременных потоков информации которые совершенно независимы друг от друга, даже если бы они "должны быть вместе" как в музыке. Доказательством тому служит то, что обычно рок группа состоит из 6 участников. Рок - музыканты понимают неоходимость передать чувство независимости частей даже когда в нотах написано противоположное. Они чрезвычайно чувствительны к скуке с точки зрения синестезии и много чего делают чтобы она не возникла на их концерте... в противном случае их ожидал бы финансовых крах.
В 1768, Якоб Адлунг Jacob Adlung в его Musica Mechanica Organoedi, том 2 гл22 параграф 522, пишет об игре на клавесине: "Нужно пытаться использовать больше арпеджио, а не нажимать клавиши вместе или играя слишком медленно поскольку струны затухают быстро." Моцарт и Шопен также настаивали, чтобы руки никогда не играли вместе.
Результат исполнения "невовремя" в десинхронизации, что и приводит к независимости голосов. Когда голоса звучат по-настоящему независимо, мозг способен воспринять каждый индивидуальный голос более легко. Когда мы воспринимаем два или больше голосов как отдельные и все же одновременные, это и называется синестезия. Это удивительный парадокс, заключающийся в том, что когда движение голосов истинно независимое, музыкальная ткань становится исключительной сложной, в то же время, среднему слушателю становится легче воспринимать и следить на ходом музыки. На самом деле, слушатель чувствует себя обделенным, когда независимости голосов не достает. Техника синестезии зависит от способности исполнителя, слышать, создавать и следить за развитием многочисленных голосов в музыке; голоса получаются независимыми друг от друга но при этом пребывающие в согласии друг с другом.
Когда линии голосов исполняются так, как в наши дни, то есть всегда вместе или одновременно, даже профессиональному музыканту бывает сложно их различить. Дело в том, что мозг распознает интервал как нижний звук в смеси с чем-то еще. Раз уж так происходит, мозг не особенно обращает внимание на все, что происходит за исключением самого низкого или самого верхнего голоса. На самом деле, лишь некоторые музыканты сегодня имеют способность выразительно петь и аккомпанировать себе второй голос одновременно...эта невозможность происходит из "клавишнонажимательного" подхода к исполнению, которым сейчас заражены даже вокалисты. Только сознательно создавая различия между голосами и пропеванием всех голосов в музыке исполнитель может разъяснить слушателю, что происходит в любой музыке, которая имеет более, чем один голос. Различия в тембре и громкости помогают в создании большей различимости голосов, однако это не сравнится по эффективности от применения техники синестезии даже в малой степени.
Кроме того, Джованни Тоси (Giovanni Tosi), в его монографии о пении названном, Искусство Цветистой Песни, опубликованной в 1736 г, использует термин vacillare (колебаться), чтобы описывать эффект колебания в мелодии, которая то отстает, то опережает бас. Он указывает, что " певец должен пытаться попасть перед счетом или после счета но никогда не одновременно" Удивительно!!!!! Сегодня, практически никто из классически подготовленных певцов не делают это, поскольку их обычно беспощадно ругали за это. Бельканто означает красивое пение, а не красивый певческий голос. Tosi говорит об этом эффекте, как об " одном из наиболее красивых эффектов в музыке." Колебания, которые он описывает, дают чувство потока и свободы...и вправду один из красивейших эффектов.
Было интересно обнаружить тот факт, что Бах в рукописях его клавирных произведений, использует vacillare подобно тому, как рекомендует Тоси. Внимательное изучение рукописей показывает, что вертикали в правой и левой руке не имеют строгих совпадений. В примерно 60% случаев ноты в правой руке опережают ноты в левой руке, а в 40% наблюдается обратное. Предположение о том, что Бах делал это ненамеренно или, что у него были проблемы с вертикальным выравниванием нелепо, поскольку Бах, вероятно, был наиболее точным в своих намерениях из всех композиторов и у него не было проблем выравнивая вернтикалей в оркестровых партитурах.
Форкере (Forqueray) дает указания для клавесинных переложений "Пьес для виолы да гамба", написанных его отцом. Они заключаются в том, что исполнитель должен воспроизводить музыку в точности как напечатано на странице. В тексте мы видим, что вертикали не совпадают до такой степени, что целые ноты попадаются посередине такта!
И Джулио Каччини (Giulio Caccini), в его Nuove musiche e nuove maniera di scriverle (" Новая музыка и Новая манера в которой она написана," Флоренция, 1614), предлагает что-то очень аналогичное vacillare, когда он пишет: "Sprezzatura - это та элегантность мелодии , которая достигается несколькими технически неправильными восьми или шестнадцатыми , технически неправильными что касается их синхронизации. Таким образом мелодия освобождается от определенного ограничения и сухости и получается приятной, свободной, и легкой, подобно тому, как приемы красноречия и находчивость делают предмет разъяснений удобным и приятным для восприятия".
Значит ли это, что использовать технику синестезии в форме vacillare легко? Ни в коем случае. Нужна практика, чтобы стать специалистом в этом. Наиболее трудно развить способность осмысливать и представлять себе все голоса во время игры, будь их 2 или 5 сразу, чтобы каждый голос пропевался чрезвычайно выразительно и независимо от других. Это выполнимо. Мы тренировали одного студента-органиста, который был не в состоянии сыграть все голоса хоральной прелюдии Баха из Orgelbuchlein, и в пределах 20 минут он пел и игра все четыре голоса независимо и выразительно во всем произведении. Итак, мы знаем, что все музыканты могут научиться этому. Кроме того, музыка Баха не может быть услышана в том виде, как она изначально задумывалась без использования этой техники. Послушайте следующий музыкальный пример трехчастной инвенции Баха и услышьте, как каждый голос пропевается выразительно и независимо создавая эффекты синестезии и Vacillare.
Также, потрудитесь найти другие исполнения этого произведения и исследуйте, насколько другие исполнители смогли создать ощущение настоящей независимости голосов.
Применение: Всегда играйте так, чтобы одна рука вела за собой другую и делайте смену ведущей руки. Не пытайтесь совпадать в ансамблях. Исключение из этого - когда приходите к концу и одновременное слияние голосов сообщает мозгу, что музыка закончилась.
Применение: Пропойте выразительно все мелодическую линию настолько независимо, насколько это возможно от других голосов. Избегайте неточностей или отвлечения внимания на другой голос, в противном случае слушатель услышит оплошность во внимании и перестает сам внимательно слушать.
Применение: В ансамблях, делайте смену между тем, как верхний голос ведет нижний и наоборот. Эти смены должны следовать логике музыкального изложения, мелодических линий и структуры. Когда верхний голос ведет, музыка летит вперед. Когда более низкий голос оказывается ведущим, это оказывает эффект сопротивления движению вперед.
2. Inegal или Техника Entasis
Entasis - древнегреческий термин, означающий предварительное напряжение, растяжку. Речь, которая произносится абсолютно ровно метрически имеет прекрасное свойство останавливать работу мозга и прекращать обработку информации, о которой идет речь...всего после нескольких секунд слушания такой речи. Человеческому мозгу нужно условие постоянной или стабильной нерегулярности для этого, чтобы оставаться бдительным и внимательным. Нерегулярность обеспечивает состояние бдительности и внимательности. Постоянство или стабильность устраняет чувство дискомфорта, который хаос зачастую создает, будучи неуправляемым и действующий не по правилам. Напряженность между чувством предсказуемости, которое постоянство (стабильность) обеспечивает и чувством ожидания которое создает нерегулярность и непредсказуемость и есть состояние Entasis. Противоположный Entasis - Stasis или статичность. Entasis в нормальной человеческой речи привносится течением мысли. Течение мысли может быть и нерегулярным, и постоянным. Так же должно быть и в музыке.
Французы, в 17 и 18 столетиях понимали значение entasis. Мы полагаем, что музыканты, которые употребляли слово inegal, имели в виду именно это. Слово на самом деле означает грубый, нерегулярный, неравномерный. Общепринятая интерпретация этого слова извращает его реальное значение, принуждая соответствовать настоящему способу идеального метрически исполнения старинной музыки. Эта интерпретация предполагает, что inegal - это вполне точное хромание. Если бы французские авторы имели именно это в виду, они бы использовали термин egal inegal или равномерная неравномерность. Следовательно, мы должны взять слово в непосредственном значении и понять его с когнитивной точки зрения.
В музыке, с когнитивной точки зрения, каждая нота, которая играется предсказуемо, создает статичность. В статичности отсутствует напряжение и, следовательно, слушать дальше бессмысленно. Если исполнители не поймут технику entasis, результат будет нулевым потому что аудитория не будет мотивирована обращать внимание на музыку. В трактате "Поэтика" (XXIV), Аристотель наблюдал как "одинаковость событий быстро приводит к насыщению" Аналогично, каждый может убедиться, как три одинаковые ноты сыгранные с двумя одинаковыми промежутками времени между ними производит состояние скуки. За время, необходимое чтобы услышать три ноты, мозг обратил внимание на то, как второе событие было похоже на первое, а третье на второе и первое, и это предсказывает ему, что четвертое будет таким же. Как только этот прогноз осуществится, мозг или идет спать от скуки или смотрит куда-нибудь еще в поисках чего-то поинтереснее. Если это случается, как это обычно происходит, в мозгу у исполнителя, ошибки являются естественным побочным продуктом. Для слушателя ошибки, которые происходят в статической музыкальной среде становятся самым главным смыслом ... какое бедствие. Именно поэтому сегодня музыкантов, которые не могут научиться играться музыку без ошибок, отговаривают всеми возможными средствами от исполнения на публике.
То, что люди учатся играть музыку точно под метроном является основной причиной беспокойства при исполнении. Избегать ошибок, когда ваш мозг отошел ко сну фактически невозможно. Довольно трудно бывает, когда ваш мозг полностью находится в состоянии бдительности. И когда ошибкам придается основное значение, что и происходит, такой подход прекрасно и методично подготавливает почву для парализующего страха. Это и является причиной того, почему талант в музыке сегодня определяется как способность исполнять правильные ноты точно вовремя, при том что мозг исполнителя при этом быстро засыпает.
Метрическая точность в музыкальном исполнении гарантирует, что большинство слушателей не смогут постичь духовной сущности великой музыки. Это также гарантирует, большинство нормальных людей эту музыка воспримут как звуковой раздражитель и проигнорируют. Это воплощение рабства в музыке...рабства под метроном...прямую противоположность которому описывал Карл Филипп Эммануил Бах, в его "Очерке о настоящем искусстве игры на клавишных инструментах”: "пытатесь избегать всего механического и рабского. Играйте от души, а не как вышколенная певчая птица." Техника entasis представляется выходом из рабства на свободу. Это просто осуществить: исполняйте ноты равной величины любым способом, кроме того, который может быть воспринят как ровный, одинаково повторяющийся.
Использование этой техники сопровождается некоторыми сложностями. Самая большая в том, что можно внести хаос в звучание. Большинство музыкантов страшно ненавидят этот эффект. Это и вправду неприятно. Нормальные люди понимают, что слушать людей, которое говорят прерывисто, с перебоями, резкими остановками и порывами в речи, значит бессмысленно тратить свое время и силы. Тем не менее, есть другие когнитивные техники, разработанные для того, чтобы создавать порядок и логику из хаоса полностью неравномерной, неметричной музыки. Таковыми являются жест, синтаксическая техника или подача голоса, и техника опознавательного сигнала. Они создают чувство логики, потока, и делают осмысленной музыку, когда методы Synaesthesia и Entasis прилагаются. Другая сложность в том, что музыканты настолько долго были приучены к ровной игре, что умышленно неметричная игра им дается уже с трудом. Это требует практики, как и в случае с техникой синестезии. Но, как и во всем, с практикой приходит результат...нужно только понять, что чувство совершенства должно появиться в душах слушателей от восприятия музыки, а не от факта точного исполнения нот и пауз между ними. Музыка должна восприниматься как нечто совершенное. Чтобы это случилось, она должна быть метрически несовершенной.
В чем заключается роль ритма? Мы полагаем, что ритм должен ощущаться, а не осознаваться слухом. Подобно биению сердца, музыкальному ритму нужно непрерывно менять темп, так как эмоциональное содержимое музыки меняется. Подобно естественно непостоянным акцентам в речи, музыкальные акценты стоит перемещать согласно значению, которые они выражают. Как только ритм, метр, или акценты станут регулярными и неизменными, они окажутся слишком очевидными, что покажет дурной вкус, ввиду их педантичного и академического звучания.
В следующем музыкальном примере, Вы услышите Сонату Scarlatti сыгранную с применением Synaesthesis, Vacillare, и Entasis или inegal. Обратите внимание на то, какой эта музыка покажется для нашего восприятия, а не для суждения.
Применение: Избегайте исполнения в строгом соответствии с ритмом. Избегайте, исполнения более, чем трех звуков равной силы и длительности. Даже двух звуков равной силы и длительности достаточно, чтобы создать ровность во внимании слушателя.
3. Техника Жеста или Интонации
Техника жеста или интонации предназначены группировать музыкальную и словесную информацию в большие смысловые блоки и форму, которая легко узнается и запоминается мозгом слушателя. Язык живет или умирает интонацией. Ровная речь без интонации сразу становится скучной и утомительной, на ней сложно сфокусироваться. Речь, богатая интонациями воспринимается без усилий. Музыка - точно так же. Интонация (жест) является техникой, которую мы все используем в речи, чтобы организовывать отчетливо неравномерный по своей природе язык. Форма жестов или интонаций, - параболическая кривая. Яйцо являет собою отличный пример этой формы. Можно также сказать, что форма эллиптическая. Эта форма создает чувство естественности и ей легко следовать. Язык без этого интонационного жеста - плоский, невыразительный, некрасивый и трудный для понимания, так же обстоит и с музыкой.
Чтобы правильно реализовывать логарифмический жест в музыке исполнитель должен изучать природу и копировать формы, которые предлагает природа. Более того, человеческая речь изобилует этим жестом в высказываниях, словах, фразах, и группах фраз. Сознательно исполняя музыку, используя эллиптический жест везде, любым возможным способом где это уместно, исполнитель может гарантировать, что слушатели ощутят комфорт, естественность и любящее отношение.
Мозг интерпретирует ровную безинтонационную речь как поведение безразличного, умирающего, подавленного, чрезвычайно больного человека. Аналогично, он интерпретирует богатую интонациями речь как поведение оживленного, одухотворенногоо, сильного, крепкого, здорового человека. Тот же и в музыке. Люди обычно не любят быть в кругу безразличных, депрессивных личностей а любят быть с бодрыми, любящими людьми. Так же, они любят слушать музыку, которая воспринимается оживленно и очень выразительно, даже если чувства, передаваемое музыкой - печаль и горе.
Применение: организуйте музыкальную информацию в виде жестов и мини-жестов, легких для восприятия и понимания.
4. Синтаксическая техника или техника ведения голоса
Данная технику исходит из синтаксической или грамматической особенности речи. Посмотрите, что получается с вышеуказанным предложением когда все слова перегруппированы, так, чтобы разрушить связи между ними. Речи технику исходит или синтаксической из грамматической особенности. Причина того, что преобразованное предложение никогда не может иметь смысла, в том, что каждое слово рассматривается как равное среди других. Порядок, или его отсутствие определяет равенство или соподчинение. То есть, все слова в этом перегруппированном предложении не подчиняются другим словам. Результат в том, что предложение не означает абсолютно ничего...даже если мы знаем, что значит каждое слово.
Человеческий мозг требует наличия связи во всем, что оно воспринимает чтобы придать этому смысл. Нечто, что нельзя связать с другим, создает чувство бессмыслицы в мозге. Мы игнорируем его, как представляющее опасность для эстетического чувства. Именно "связующее" в синтаксическом понимании свойство языка подчеркивает логику музыкального изложения. Чтобы эта логика была еще более понятна, нужно использовать техники inegal и entasis.
Смысл и значение как в языке так и в музыке исходят из правильной группировки слов, образовывая фразы или жесты, которые, похоже, существуют вместе, только когда грамматический смысл каждого слова или ноты учитывается и усиливается, чтобы подчеркнуть предполагаемое значение. Каждая нота диатонической гаммы имеет отношение к тонике подобно тому, как все части предложения связаны в некотором роде с существительным. Такой взгляд предполагает, что понимание интервалов и аккордов в любой гамме существенно для понимания значения, которое выражает музыка подобно тому, как фразы и элементарные выражения в предложениях необходимы для понимании значений в языке. Это самое основное для этой техники. Прошло немало времени с тех пор, как человеческий мозг "настраивался" на понимание значения через грамматику и фразы в языке. Мозг, воспринимающий музыку, которая имеет мало количество "грамматических тенденций" теперь обязан сам создавать такие тенденции, самостоятельно. Проблема в том, что музыка проносится слишком быстро мимо нас, и мозг, не успев выполнить такую задачу, просто отключится. Разве это подходящий способ исполнения?
Внешний технический прием, испульзуемый для ведения голоса - это легато (используется реальное значение легато, которое подразумевает "связь в уме" а не просто для слуха) и музыкальный прием для этого типа легато - cantabile. (используется реальное значения cantabile, которое означает "в певческом стиле" и подразумевает под собой стиль великого певца). Баху была присуща игра cantabile. На самом деле, письмо датированное 12 Апреля 1842 написанных F.K.Griepenkerl ( студент N. Forkel), говорит нам, что "Бах сам, его сыновья, и Forkel исполнявший шедевры с такой глубокой декламацией, как будто это звучали полифонические песни исполненные самостоятельно великими певцами; все средства хорошего пения привносились в игру. Ни cercare, ни portamento не было упущено. Даже дыхание бралось в правильном месте... Произведения Баха хочется пропевать как можно более искусно".
Применение: пропойте настолько выразительно каждый голос в тексте и затем сыграйте музыку точно как же выразительно, как вы спели. Мы обратили внимание, что музыканты почти никогда не бывают более выразительными в игре, чем в пении. Музыкант, который скучно пропевает музыку, так же ее и исполняет. Следовательно, необходимо, чтобы те музыканты, которые могут сыграть более, чем один голос на своем инструменте должны быть способны пропеть любой голос на протяжении всей пьесы. Изнурительная работа!!!! Привыкните к этому. В этом вся соль музыки.
Невероятным и очень увлекательным является то, что обычные люди могут распознать немедленно момент, когда исполнитель перестал пропевать голоса в воображении. Они не могут сформулировать, что случилось. Но, они обычно говорят, что музыка стала безжизненной в этот момент. Фактически, обычные люди знают очень много о том, как музыка должна зазвучать для того, чтобы быть действенной для них. Любой музыкант, который соберет группу обычных людей и попросит, чтобы эти люди рассказали ему, как стоит исполнять, сразу обнаружит, насколько четкими и осознанными являются их требования. Ключевой момент в следующем - начните играть каждую пьесу максимально точно метрически и как можно скучнее. Затем спросите слушателей что, по их ощущениям, нужно сделать, чтобы музыка была обращена непосредственно к ним. Количество энергии в зале удивит каждого музыканта, который мог раньше рассматривать слушателей как пассивные объекты. Если бы каждый музыкант провел этот эксперимент, он или она начали бы по-настоящему ценить обычных людей, как слушателей и узнали бы, как выражать музыку. Мы знаем по себе, поскольку мы провели сами этот эксперимент с людьми, которые испытывали антипатию к классической музыке. Но та оценка, которую они выразили после прослушивания музыки, сыгранной для них точно как они попросили об этом, вдохновляет. Попробуйте сами!
Пропойте каждую ноту настолько выразительно, насколько требуется и затем сыграйте таким же образом. Это зачастую означает, что Вы должны пропеть всю музыку в вашем воображении, во время исполнения, с такой интенсивностью, убедительностью и энергией, чтобы то, что "просочится" в услышанное слушателем восхитило бы его.
5. Знак признания или техника гармонизации.
Знак признания или техника гармонизации предназначены для того, чтобы на создать чувство гармонии в душах слушателя и говорящего. Люди применяют эту "технику" выражая признание или соглашаясь с тем, что человек говорит. Гармония между говорящим и слушателем происходит из такого рода высказываний. Отсутствие этих высказываний говорит о неудачном выражении мысли или неспособности убедить. Эта техника наиболее эффективна, когда ее скорость и манера выполнения наиболее близка тому, как это происходит в устной речи.
Знак признания в человеческой речи предназначен для выражения многих вещей с точки зрения слушателя...согласие, способность следовать за линией аргументации, выражение "пожалуйста продолжайте," попадание в точку, и т.п.. Он звучит как "ага", с повышением интонации в конце. Интересно отметить что в разделе X Поэтики, Аристотель определяет признание как " замену незнания на знание." Когда слушатели слышат знак признания, выраженный в музыке, это создает у слушателя чувство того, что он может легко следовать за музыкой и ощутить единство с исполнителем. Это техника также позволяет воспринять гармонию звука с предельной ясностью. Знак признания или cercare - это то средство, посредством которого чувство непонимания того, что происходит в некотором отрезке в музыке превращается в понимание. Это чувство причислялось к духовной сфере поскольку оно переживалось в виде чувства просветления.
Чрезвычайно интересно, чтобы слово "cercare" (произносится как черкаре), из цитаты из письма Griepenkerl, (что ""Бах сам, его сыновья, и Forkel исполнявший шедевры с такой глубокой декламацией, как будто это звучали полифонические песни исполненные самостоятельно великими певцами; все средства хорошего пения привносились в игру. Ни cercare, ни portamento не было упущено. Даже дыхание бралось в правильном месте... Произведения Баха хочется пропевать как можно более искусно."), определен в "Музыкальных терминах" (Musiklexicon) Римана как итальянское украшение (мелизм) 17-го столетия, в котором верхнея или нижняя вспомогательная нота исполняется мягко и внезапно к основной ноте. Это именно так, как выражается знак признания. Другими словами, знак признания является cercare. Тем не менее сегодня cercare считается дурным вкусом у певцов. Вы полагаете Бах исполнял свою музыку, имея дурной вкус? Кому же поверить в этом вопросе? Мы решили верить Баху и естественности человеческого выражения.
Применение: скорость Cercare является наиболее важными аспектом. Если скорость cercare слишком медленная, тогда это звучит как арпеджио. Если скорость - слишком большая, тогда это звучит подобно форшлагу. Правильная скорость для большинства моментов, где это используется, - скорость в которой Вы наиболее естественно говорите "па-дам" с ударением на втором слоге. Если Вы говорите это как па-дам с ударением на первом слоге, это слишком медленно. И, если Вы говорите, это как па-дам без ударения, это слишком быстро. Если музыка выражает более насыщенное чувство, cercare может быть исполнено более медленно и с большим ударением. Если музыка более оживленная, cercare исполняется быстрее и легче.
Чакона Баха из ре минорной партиты для скрипки - это один большой повод играть одно cercare за другим. Итальянский концерт Баха начинается с cercare. Патетическая соната Бетховена начинается с cercare, между которых вставлено несколько нот. 9-я Симфония Beethoven полна cercare...при этом Вы бы не догадались об этом, если слушать современное исполнение.
6. Искажение или техника захвата внимания
Речь идет о любом способе захвата внимания слушателя, а также его направления в нужное русло. Покашливание оратора - один из таких способов. Он привлекает внимание к конкретному моменту. Трюки волшебников никогда бы не срабатывали, если бы они не умели использовать отвлекающие приемы. Трель или любой другой мелизм является таким приемом. Когда певец изменяет гласную во время исполнения одной длинной ноты, он искажает оригинальную гласную и создает чувство повышенного интереса в длинной ноте...в умах слушателей. Шум или "грязь" - другое. Короткий форшлаг является примером "грязи" когда добавляется к аккорду.
Другой пример техники искажения, когда певец позволяет голосу срываться чтобы произвести эмоциональные эффект. Другой пример - когда скрипач с силой давит на струну при игре особой ноты, чтобы произвести придать ей особое значение Общепринятое определение portamento означает скольжение от одного звука к другому. Это тоже своего рода техника искажения.
Хотя Аристотель не использует слово "грязь", фактически он использует слово "ошибки" в следующих значениях: "ошибка может быть оправдана, если при этом достигается конечная цель искусства, таким образом, чтобы эффект получился еще более поразительным." (Поэтика, XXV) Он добавляет к этому предупреждение: "Если конечный результат без нарушения правил поэтического искусства был бы таким же, или лучше, то тогда ошибка не оправдана, и по возможности таких ошибок следует избегать". Никакого более ясного определение поэтической вольности не может быть. Техника искажения должна использоваться благоразумно, если вы не хотите, чтобы конечный результат был бы испорченн бессмысленным невоздержанным использованием этой техники. То же относится и к другим приемам.
Все же величайшая ошибка из всех - создавать чувство скуки у слушателя слишком выверенным (дословно - отполированным) исполнением...это - самое большое нарушение правил хорошего вкуса. Здесь мы должны сделать комментарий. То есть, есть слушатели, которые действительно любят музыку, исполняемую таким образом, что большинство людей, включая нас, сочли бы ее скучной и абсолютно бессмысленной. Эти слушатели интересуются в первую очередь информацеий, представленной в произведении, как оно написано, как композитор обращался с информацией, а также обращают внимание на математическую точность исполнения. Идеальный исполнитель для таких слушателей будет компьютер, поскольку он, по крайней мере, не делает никаких ошибок в передаче данных. Ни передача данных ни бухгалтерский учет не имеют отношение к области искусства. Большинство слушателей слушают музыку, чтобы почувствовать, о чем эта музыка, то есть, чтобы пережить те чувства, которые великие композиторы намеревались заложить при написании своих произведений. Там, где чувство естественное и истинное, есть обязательно элемент хаоса и непредсказуемости. Намерение устранять эти элементы - ошибка высокомерия и незнания. Для человека считать, он лучше знает, как правильно, чем сама природа, является высокомерием. Считать, что понимать естество без способности создавать естественность в искусстве даже в малейшей степени, невежественно, даже если это касается только музыки.
Подумайте тщательно при "стерилизации" музыкального исполнения от всех интересных и непредсказуемых моментов с целью создания совершенного исполнения, как бы не достичь совершенства в наведении скуки. Истинной целью искусства является создание чувства совершенства, а не факта совершенного исполнительства. Чувство совершенства в картине Ботичелли "Рождение Венеры" является прямым результатом изумительной суммы искажений, которое он использовал при создании этого произведения касательно пропорций.
Приложение: не бойтесь получить безобразные звуки, особенно если впечатление, которое Вы хотите создать, того требует. Уродство, как и красота - понятия относительные. Мы ощущаем нечто более красивым, когда оно находится рядом с чем-то безобразным. Это имеет отношения к рассказам вроде "Красавица и чудовище". И наоборот, музыка без диссонанса скучна. Диссонанс без консонанса воспринимается неприятным и жестким. Консонанс без диссонанса ощущается слащавым и инертным.
Учась овладевать мелизмами, осознайте, что добавление его акцентирует момент в музыке, где он добавлен. Избегайте применять мелизмы там, где уже до этого были привлечены другие средства выделения значимости момента. С тех пор как великие композиторы ясно стали понимали эти техники, они записывали их в нотах, чтобы музыканты могли опознать, какую технику стоить применить. Мелизмы, указанные в тексте композитором, считались существенными и таким образом обязательными для исполнения. Тем не менее, большее могло было быть добавлено ad libitum, как и требуется в зависимости от инструмента, акустики зала, и темпа.
Живость является эффектом принципа техники искажения. Даже чтобы донести печаль, необходима пикантность, чтобы достичь нужной интенсивности чувства. Поэтические вольности предоставляют каждому исполнителю свободу, чтобы создавать широкую гамму чувств у слушателя, всеми нужными средствами. Это, тем не менее, еще предполагает наличие высокого вкуса, ответственность за который лежит на исполнителе. Таким образом, дозволено все, но прежде всего будьте нацелены на то, чтобы создать впечатление целостности, чтобы в первую очередь музыка, а не исполнение, осталась в сердцах слушателей.
7. Техника снятия беспокойства или "Sans souci"(франц. беззаботный)
Мы называем эту технику "sans souci" поскольку она предназначена, чтобы создавать моменты в музыке, которые жестом передаются как пожимание плечами, поднятием рук со словам: "Не принимайте все это всерьез!! Поживите немного! Перестаньте управлять!! Отпустите себя ! Будьте счастливы!! Не беспокойтесь так сильно!! Другими словами "sans souci" - беззаботно!
То есть, когда строго совпадающие вертикали напоминают, что ноты должны исполняться строго одновременно, они должны быть умышленно перепутаны или сыграны неровно или неустойчиво, чтобы создавать эффект беззаботности(sans souci). Если Вы назовете розу другим словом, она не перестанет пахнуть такт же приятно. Назовете ли Вы эту технику sans souci или темп rubato или джазовой манерой, основной идеей все равно останется расслабленное, беспечное исполнение без особых усилий, привносящее соответствующий эффект в музыку.
Беспокойство отражается на тех, кто за этим наблюдает. Музыкант, обеспокоенный и озабоченный тем, чтобы не ошибиться, создает чувство беспокойства в аудитории через язык тела и через звук и через манеру исполнения. Физическая напряженность создает беспокойство. Внимание устраняет беспокойство. Умственное напряжение создает беспокойство. Релаксация устраняет беспокойство. Механическая, метрически ровная, и монотонная игра создает беспокойство. Inegal, неравномерная, подчиненная логике игра устраняет беспокойство. Слишком большое увлечение не особо важной деталью создает беспокойство. Жестикуляция устраняет беспокойство. Одержимость точностью создает беспокойство. Фокусировка внимания на значение и цель устраняет беспокойство. Обеспокоенность мнением других создает беспокойство. Равнодушие к мнению окружающих устраняет беспокойство. Самосознание создает беспокойство. Доверие и полное отсутствие самосознания устраняет. Это - функция sans souci. Слушатели могут только тогда по-настоящему истинно полюбить музыку, когда преобладает sans souci беззаботная среда и отношение.
Применение: Sans souci - антитеза того как нас учат играть классическую музыку. Отношение является наиболее важными средством применения этой техники. Чтобы применять их при исполнении текста, нужно искать в нем любую возможность это сделать. Попробуйте с каждым пассажем, чтобы понять можно ли его улучшить смещением каждого голоса на половину длительности, чтобы иногда опережал бас, а иногда верхний голос. Вы можете прочитать об этом в монографии Турка (Turk) " Игра на клавире" в темпе rubato.
8. Техника походки
Сен Ламбер (St. Lambert), перед своими композициями указывает, что нормальный темп в музыке - это темп человеческой походки. Наблюдая за людьми, каждый может сделать вывод, что все они ходят в разным темпах. Единственный вывод, который можно из этого сделать, что Сен Ламбер был идиотом. Тем не менее люди, в свое время наблюдая, что земля плоская сделали из этого вывод, что она на самом деле плоская. Если мы серьезно отнесемся к словам Сен Ламбера, то обнаружим нечто интересное в его наблюдениях. Мы обнаруживаем, что он был прав. То есть, если вы наблюдаете за всеми проходящими людьми, они на самом деле ходят в разных темпах. Но если вы наблюдаете только тех людей, которые идут, "имея намерение получить нечто определенное", они все идут в одном темпе. Большие или маленькие, молодые или старые, темп тот же. Единственное условие,что все они были здоровыми, не инвалидами, крепкими, и имели нормальное телосложение. Темп, в котором они идут, чтобы получить что-нибудь определенное - ровно 116 ударов в минуту. Во всех остальных случаях, люди идут с другими скоростями.
Интересно что музыка, как и мысль всегда должна привести к какому-то определенному месту. Это случается там, где заканчивается мысль или каденция. Более интересно то, что подобно тому, как мы идем, чтобы получать нечто определенное, в темпе 116, большинство людей также говорят обычно с ударениями в речи, происходящими в темпе 116 ударов в минуту. Но это происходит только тогда, когда у нас есть конкретно что сказать. Речь тех, которые в силу темперамента, личностных особенностей, убеждений, или по привычке говорят в более быстром или медленном темпе, воспринимается, как до невозможности скучная и тугодумная, в случае, если ее темп значительно медленнее чем 116, или не заслуживающей доверия, если они говорят значительно быстрее чем 116. Впечатление от замедления речи - инертность, вялость или болезненное самоосознание. Впечатление от ускорения - такое же, как если вы хотите принудить человека сделать то, чего он не хочет.
Что даже еще более интересно, то что одновременно с ударениями в речи в темпе 116, паузы, подчеркивающие моменты, фразы, длительность тишины между обменом репликами разговаривающих, происходят с темпе 72. Занятно, что если Вы делите 116 на 1.618... ( коэффициент пропорции "золотого сечения ") вы получаете 72 (точно 71.69...)!
Niel deGrasse Tyson
Spanish
Hindi
Finnish
Arabic
Farsi
Romani
Navajo
Каждый, для кого наблюдения слишком невероятны должны подтвердить это для себя взяв метроном установленный в темпе 116 и проведя некоторое время перед телевизором. Затем им нужно устанавливать метроном на 72, чтобы проверить скорость решающих моментов, пауз, фраз, и т.п.. После этого нужно слегка поменять эти темпы, чтобы увидеть, что происходит на скорости, например, 118 или 74 или 114 или 70 и удостовериться в совпадении. После этого станет ясно, что вышесказанное правдоподобно.
Чрезвычайно интересно, что есть несколько других соотношений темпов, которые работают. Эти темпы - производные от умножения или деления деления 116 и 72 как например, 58 (одна половина 116), 144 (дважды 72), 96 (4 умноженное на 72 деленное на 3. отношение 3 к 4 ), 108 (3 умноженное на 72 и деленное на 2...отношение 3:2) 87 (116 умноженное на 3 и деленное на 4...отношение 3:4 ), и т.п..
Из этих наблюдений можно сделать вывод о том, что человеческий мозг обрабатывает услышанную информацию при определенной скорости потока. Она может измениться в зависимости от значения, плотности, интенсивности или степени срочности информации. Если информация подается со скоростью быстрее чем, она может быть обработана и понята, мы чувствуем перегрузку. Если с меньшей, мы испытываем, затрудненность, нетерпение, раздражение или скуку.
Мы предложили идею, что механизм, который обрабатывает информацию, работает исходя из соотношения скорости потока и интенсивности его содержания. Если интенсивность уменьшается, при неизменной скорости, восприятие отметит замедление потока. Следовательно, если интенсивность уменьшилась, скорость потока должна увеличиться, если Вы не хотите, чтобы ум впал в скуку. И наоборот, если интенсивность содержимого увеличивается, но скорость потока та же, ум полагает, что скорость повысилась, таким образом, скорость должна уменьшиться в противном случае ум скоро почувствует перегрузку. Это легко может быть объяснено принципом обратной пропорции. Чем больше событий в музыке, тем медленнее должен быть темп. Чем меньше событий происходит в музыке, тем быстрее должен быть темп. Кроме того каждая из перечисленных техник преподнесения музыкального материала, во время применения потребует своего темпа исполнения, иногда, возможно более медленного, в зависимости от интенсивности событий в музыке.
Таким образом будет правильно подвергнуть критике современное исполнение классики, которая чрезмерно закрепощена метрической ровностью и одновременным звучание вертикалей, поскольку, в случае со старинной музыкой, музыканты вынуждены играть слишком быстро (из-за нехватки интереса или значения при преподнесении материала) или, в случае романтической литературы, которую нужно исполнять очень медленно для того, чтобы включать в ее исполнение те приемы, которые они обычно использовали с целью создания теплоты, без которых получалось бы холодное, математически точное исполнение. Эти приемы - непрерывное вибрато, предсказуемое и равномерное ускорение и замедление, и предсказуемо регулярные градации изменения силы звука (приемы, которые применяя в речи, вызовут наиболее глупый, наиболее нелепый эффект). В первом случае со старинной музыкой, чрезмерная скорость заполняет промежутки между нотами, чтобы мозги слушателя не имели возможности заполнять эти промежутки скучными мыслями. И, во втором случае, методы "согревания", чтобы избежать холодного, жесткого, бесстрастного исполнения - это отвлекающие приемы, которыми исполнители стараются отвлечь внимание слушателя от исполнения, лишенного воображения.
Выбор темпа связан со скоростью потока и того, как он изменяется в зависимости от значения, плотности, значения, интенсивности, или степени срочности информации, а также с тем, какое впечатление должно произвести произведение. В случае неправильного выбора вы создадите эффект принуждения, если темп немного более медленный, или гонки если он более быстрый. Тем не менее, если эти наблюдения выбросить из головы, тогда выбор темпа основан на произвольности; что очень похоже если бы Вы купили продукты, бросили их в печь и надеялись, что съедобное блюдо возникнет через некоторое время, что стало бы посмешищем в кулинарии. Вы можете полностью довериться таланту; хорошо, если он есть, и не очень хорошо, если его нет.
Применение: определите, где в произведении можно сыграть в темпе 116 или 72 и протестируйте эти темпы на слушателях. Эти темпы должны заставить слушателей воспринимать музыку более естественно. Иногда это будет, как вызов, сыграть с такой скоростью, поскольку скорость может быть быстрее чем исполнитель может технически преодолеть. Тем не менее, многие композиторы учитывали эти темпы в написании музыки и писавшие так, чтобы легче исполнялось, когда взят правильный темп...даже если бы темп был бы значительно быстрее чем обычный.
9. Испарение или техника тайны
Эта техника наилучшим образом исполняется на динамических инструментах как, например, клавикорды, фортепиано, смычковые, лютни и гитары, а также голосом. Техника испарения - уменьшение силы звука в конце фразы пока он совсем не исчезнет, другими словами не испарится. Техника также использована в кино где она называется затуханием. Испарение каким-то образов ведет слушателя к завершению фразы по мере того, как она исчезает. Манипуляруя силой воздействия, исполнитель может заставить слушателя следовать за собой так, как он захочет. Эпизоды, к которым применяется эта техника, как правило менее значимые. Применение техники к менее интересным частям усиливает их значимость для слушателя, даже если для него это не так очевидно.
С когнитивной точки зрения, мозг включается, когда нечто для него становится недостижимым. Именно поэтому, несмотря на то, что глаз предназначен для восприятия света, тени наиболее привлекательны для него. Когда идеи постулируются однозначно и с настойчивостью, ум воспринимает их как не особо важные. Технические статьи, написанные в таком духе, дефективны в этом смысле. Когда идеи просто упоминаются, или предлагаются в виде гипотез, ум не будет удовлетворен пока это не узнает все о них. Когда идеи ясно выражены , информация может быть принята или отвергнута умом, но в любом случае не может быть проигнорирована. Когда информация всего лишь присутствует, она становится частью пейзажа и лишь некоторые обращают на нее внимание. Когда звук подается сильно и убывает непредсказуемо, слушателю легче понять филигранность "отделки" и группировку музыкальной мысли. Все, загадочное и сокрытое подвергает танталовым мукам душу. Это - вечный соблазн духовной области. Мозг неизменно стремится к тому, чем он не обладает.
Уводя в тень исполнение, а также применяя другие техники, вы заставляете слушателя почувствовать парадокс между малозначимым окончанием фразы и сильным вниманием.
Применение: выберите особенно неважные моменты в музыке, чтобы притенить их, вроде концов фраз или арпеджированных аккордов, моменты. которые в противном случае будут упущены. Затем подготовьте умы слушателей постепенно уменьшая силу звука, чтобы только последняя нота, все-же сыгранная, канула в тишину. Это работает только при живом исполнении, где слушатели могут видеть сыгранную ноту, но не услышать ее. В записях, нота должно быть слышима но настолько мягко, что оно заставит слушателя почувствовать эффектом испарения. Поэтическое вольность и чувство, что сработает, а что нет, являются наилучшим руководством для применения этой техники.
10. Регулирование времени или техника сомнения
Для выполнения этой техники нужно задержать время, или "усомниться" перед игрой наиболее важной ноты. Другой способ - это "зависнуть", выдержать нужный звук значительно дольше, чем написано в тексте. Эта техника связана с управлением ожиданиями слушателя, когда нота должна прозвучать и когда она на самом деле прозвучит и сколько продлится. Она выполняется, когда кульминационная нота слегка задерживается исполнителем, который "усомнился" , на время, достаточное для того, чтобы слушатель додумал ее сам прежде чем она прозвучит. Комики используют эту технику, чтобы изменить ожидаемое слово на неожиданное, что, конечно, вызывает смех.
11. Техника "Excrucis"
Слово excrucis латинское: ex, означает - из, и crux означает пересечение. Excrucis , буквально, из креста или из пересечения. Эта техника имеет отношение к тем важным моментам, которые включают в себя диссонансы, а именно, как с ними обращаться.
Когда каждый из голосов, будучи подчиненным логике и выразительности, следует непреклонно своей линии, наступают моменты, когда они пересекаются, в результате возникает очень напряженные диссонансы, которые потом разрешаются очень красиво и элегантно, это и есть те моменты, которые пригодны для применения техники excrusis. Такие моменты, при правильном обращении, производят невероятные, до боли трогающие эффекты, которые только возможны в музыке.
Возможно, довольно просто сопоставить это с чувством объятия, обращая внимание на то чувство, которое Вы переживаете после глубоких объятий, или в случае, если вас обнимает тот, кого вы любите или тот, кто сильно любит вас. Это чувство может тронуть до боли. Зачастую такие моменты в человеческих отношениях связаны с глубинными позитивными чувствами или чувствами духовного характера. В этом - когнитивный эффект excrucis техники. Чтобы максимально использовать моменты, в которых встречаются пересечения голосов, нужно замедлить временно темп (при этом не замедляя всего потока музыки), до такой степени, что любой случайный наблюдатель смог обратить внимание на то, что происходит, для того, чтобы создать впечатление, что диссонансы "трутся" друг о друга.
Эпилог к первой части
1). Нами были представлены когнитивные техники, предназначенные для улучшения преподнесения музыкального материала. Согласно Аристотелю, в Поэтике (XXI), " совершенство стиля должно быть понятным без применения средств, бросающихся в глаза.(банальных)" Цель этих техник - соединить музыкальную информацию в ясные и значимые фразы для слушателей, чтобы помочь им понять смысл материала. Эффект этих методов проявляется в ясности в умах слушателей относительно того, что важно, а что нет. Кроме того, мозгу нужно постоянное и интенсивное стимулирование в форме непредсказуемости, ясности в том, что к чему относится, ясности взаимоотношений частей, непрерывного потока мысли, и случайные загадки для того, чтобы поддерживать бдительное, внимательное, и сфокусированное состояние. Это - функция техник. Одиннадцать разных техник предназначаются для того, чтобы не дать мозгам заснуть и, создавать связи в целях облегчения понимания музыкальной иерархии слушателем. То, что слушатель воспринимает ясно, создает резонанса в его душе и трогает душу.
2). Карл Филлип Иммануил Бах обращал внимание на создание потока в исполнении. Поток помогает связывать всех части и аспекты произведения. Это очень интересно, поскольку использование этих одиннадцати техник может иметь тенденцию к нарушению потока из-за "примешивания" в музыкальное исполнение большого количества интересных моментов, значений, символов, чувств, и выразительности. Поэтому, мы полагаем, К.Ф.И. Бах предавал значение важности потока. Довольно часто нам встречались фрагменты того же толка, что и в трактате Баха, и мы предполагаем, что понимаем, о чем речь. Это чувство понимания дает нам право, чтобы делать что угодно, чтобы создать эффект, о котором говорит автор. В случае использования Бахом слова "поток," сегодняшнее значение его извращено, и означает постоянное и непрерывное звучание, с использованием метронома как окончательного судьи для установления истины. По собственным словам Баха, это поведение механическое так и рабское...или как Аристотель мог сказать банальное.
Из всего, что Бах говорит о потоке, ясно, что он имеет в виду поток мысли. Поток мысли, независимо музыкальный или словесный, нужно строго поддерживать, особенно перед аудиторией если оплошность обнаружена и исполнитель потерял свою мысль. Особенно стоит помнить, что поток мысли всегда поддерживается намерением говорить что-то конкретное. Постоянное и непрерывное звучание не требует этого и как таковое, является жалкой попыткой, быть полноценным на фоне отсутствия музыкальных идей и мыслей. Наконец, по этой причине, указание строго поддерживать поток связанно непосредственно с потоком музыкальной мысли, поскольку это неоходимо для "приятного" (термин Баха) или наполненного любовью исполнения.
Поток не является тем же, что и темп или скорость в музыке. Как мы все знаем из опыта, исполнение может быть совершенно точно исполнено с точки зрения темпа, и быть лишенным потока музыкальной мысли. В музыке главное - это поток мысли, ноты необходимы только для того, чтобы нести этот поток. Метафора, которая наилучшим образом подходит для описания: музыкальная мысль должна течь подобно большой реке. Водовороты, течения, и вихри, которые можно наблюдать на поверхности реки никогда не остановят течения реки, она течет, что бы ни случилось. То же касается и музыкальной мысли. Цель в том, чтобы выразить значение музыки, задуманное композитором. Работа исполнителя в интуитивном понимании этого значения и донесения музыкальной мысли, стоящей за нотами. Любая честная попытка в этом отношении, независимо от того, насколько она скудна, лучше, чем совсем ничего. Эти одиннадцать техник - средства в помощь тем, кто хочет открыть и донести до слушателя намерение композитора.
3). Проблема с использованием этих техник в том, что они эффективны только будучи очевидными. Хитрость в использовании их должна быть в том, чтобы по возможности они были очевидными, но ни одна из них не должна быть в центре внимания. Это наиболее легко достигается использованием их всех одновременно везде, где возможно. Используя все одиннадцать одновременно, невозможно использовать одной за счет, таким образом все становятся равноправными. Как только одна из техник обращает на себя внимание как средство для достижения того или иного эффекта, она применяется неправильно. Как сказано в поговорке: искусство маскирует само себя. Это - деликатный момент, в том, чтобы использовать технику или техники так, чтобы это не бросалось в глаза.
4). Эти техники повышают качество музыкального общения поскольку они порождают и поддерживают высокую степень внимания как у слушателя, так и у исполнителя. Любить и обращать внимание - одно и то же. Именно поэтому исполнение музыки может быть охарактеризовано как либо поддержание внимания либо избегание этого ... варианта посередине не существует. Простое присутствие звука в зале не гарантирует ничего кроме пассивного внимания. Когда слушатель глубоко внимателен, он может прочувствовать то, что имел в виду композитор. Альтернатива - или скука или непоследовательность. Поскольку скука - понятное состояние, непоследовательность изначально непонятна. То есть, исполнители, которые грешат механическими привычками игры и только случайно использующие одну или две из этих техник, когда о них вспоминают, повергают мозг в скуку, но пытаются заинтересовать ум. Одновременно скука и заинтересованность - спутанное состояние, и это особенно касается любителей музыки.
5). Лишь немногие слушатели обладают способность или силу воли, чтобы преодолевать чувство скуки для того, чтобы фокусировать внимание на бессмысленном материале (то есть, события в сфере звука, которые могут быть ментально отслежены но без привлечения чувств, поскольку чувство скуки слишком интенсивное) как например, композиционные методы и структура...то, что обращает внимание на "гений" композитора а не на чувства, которые композитор намеревался вызвать у слушателя. Нужна большая практика, чтобы приобрести некоторую степень мастерства, для того, чтобы обращать внимание эти структурные детали в музыке без применения вышеупомянутых техник. Это то, на что студенты тратят годы учась в консерваториях. Обычные слушатели имеют очень мало времени или терпения, чтобы делать это. Довольно любопытно, что когда музыка исполняется таким образом, чтобы создавать высокий уровень внимания у обычного слушателя, все детали композиционной техники и структуры становятся более явными для этих слушателей.
Когда все эти техники используются должным образом в исполнении, сущность музыки эффективно передается исполнителем и легко воспринимается слушателями. В 18 столетии французы использовали термин bon gout (хороший вкус), когда говорили о хорошем исполнении в музыки. Bon gout может существовать, если есть какой угодно сильный вкус(аромат), чтобы можно было о нем говорить. Вы не можете иметь bon gout когда все звучит пресно и скучно. Страх mauvais (плохого) вкуса создает исполнителей, которые играют sans(без) вкуса. Когда учатся развивать bon gout, нужно, чтобы музыка имела хорошо ощутимый привкус (аромат). Bon gout подразумевает выработанное чувство того, как, сбалансировать все ароматы ( в виде техник) в произведении, используя их все в правильных пропорциях чтобы точно передать то состояние, которое композитор намеревался передать в музыке. Никто кроме вас самих не сможет это выработать у себя. Это присуще тем, кто смог это освоить.
Результатом чрезвычайно искусного использования техники является очень выразительное исполнением музыки, которая глубоко трогает и создает душевные порывы у слушателей. Использование этих техник создает эффект игры "из глубины души," то есть, игра "из глубины души" с точки зрения слушателя. Это - функция и цель Искусства преподнесения.
在这篇文章中, 我们将分两集介绍有关音乐沟通之手法。每集都有一个鲜明的主题,不存在哪个主题更为重要的问题。因为其中的一个得依赖另一个来才能完整地表达其中的思想内容,才能在音乐的演奏与表达中充分地发挥出各自动人心灵的力量来。
兴许应该让我们的读者知道, 这里介绍的技巧和概念,是经过对专业音乐工作者,普通听众,以及那些只能被称之为“敌意听众”进行测试的。“敌意听众”是指那些自称对古典音乐有强烈对立情绪的听众。在讲座现场,我们用本文介绍的技巧来演奏,搞音乐专业的听众对演奏效果的反映参差不齐, 也就是,约95%喜爱这样演奏的音乐感觉,其余的5%可以说是憎恨我们的音乐表达方式并公开表示他们的愤满,他们认为我们介绍的技巧违背了他们对音乐演奏与表达的理解。普通听众的反映是100%都认为我们的演奏对他们有启发。敌意听众对他们所听到的演奏是100%的惊喜与惊讶。在演奏过程中,敌意听众仿佛发现,他们与古典音乐之间的隔阂是音乐的演奏方式而不是音乐本身,更不是他们对古典音乐的相对无知。
我们注意到,敌意听众都非常聪慧并且对音乐有很强的领悟力,但他们没有耐心听那些没有感染力的演奏。此外,当提请这些对古典音乐毫无兴趣的敌意听众告诉演奏者如何演奏才能提起他们的兴趣时,而且演奏者又能按照他们的要求和建议,以充满爱心和包容的方式来进行演奏时,他们便会对演奏者和所演奏的音乐热烈喝彩。有的说,如此演奏的音乐让他们热泪盈眶。这才是演奏动人心灵之音乐的内涵所在,不是吗?毫无例外,所有的听众对演奏者该如何演奏才能让他们觉得音乐“有活力”的看法是一致的。同样地,我们在本文上集中介绍的内容几乎就是听众们所提建议逐字逐句的表述:展现的艺术。
以上的经验或实验不但可以,也应该能够由任何一位诚心学习音乐沟通手法的人来实现,只要他或她坚信我们介绍的这些技巧和概念是行之有效的。仅相信和认可这些技巧和概念是不够的,得把它们用来对各类听众进行测试。然而,对那些来自搞古典音乐的听众的反应得多加谨慎,他们往往会对此持太多的先入为主的偏见。因为通行的古典音乐演奏方式已经给他们打上了烙印,而我们介绍的这些技巧和概念在他们熟捻于心的演奏方式中又几乎无踪可寻。
敌视和对立从何而来?我们认为这是由于互存敌意的双方都产生了误解。音乐家们总把普通听众当做音乐感觉愚钝且无高雅品味之徒来看待,因此没把心思放在这些人身上。而这些听众又把古典音乐家看成是遥不可及,冷漠无情,趋颜附势,娇柔作做之类,其演奏根本不值一听。这就是古典音乐目前的处境。这一处境真可谓一出悲剧,因为音乐本身往往就是用来表达深沉而强烈的爱的,它应当通过亲切动人和倾心投入的方式来演奏,从而让所有的人都能尽情享受。更有甚之,在如今那些随处泛滥的文化中,古典音乐与恐惧和邪恶是连在一起的(信不信由你!)。例如,在电影中,我们常常看到恶人在策划谋杀他人时听的就是古典音乐。古典音乐家都被描绘成自私,唯我,冷酷,无情且幼稚无知之徒。在猛烈和巨大的摧毁爆炸声中往往加入一段史上最伟大的古典音乐片段。
这就意味着,要改变古典音乐这一尴尬处境,让其充满音乐欢乐,不单只是音乐家的事情,我们每个人都应该匹夫有责。这就是我们写作这篇文章的动机。
一个臆想不到的效果,就是当技艺精湛的演奏家在演奏中揉入了这里介绍的技巧和概念时,这些手法便能大展威力,使原本一场普通的演出变成一场展现音乐魅力之盛会。更奇特的是,当这些技巧和概念没有融入到演奏中去时,即便是完美的炫技,或是传统意义上的高水准,音乐上给人超好的感觉甚至令人赞叹的娴熟,演奏效果总还是缺欠了点什么。这些差异并非微不可察,因为几乎每一个正常的普通人都可以轻而易举地感受到充满魅力的音乐效果。因此,任何一位渴望分享这些动人效果的音乐家,只需要掌握和使用本文下面的内容。
上集:展现的艺术
演奏乐器,是一种技法。然而,表达音乐,相就而言,一直被视为是一种艺术。这一观点由来已久以至于我们很少对此提出质疑。本文的目的就是对这一观点背后隐藏的本质进行质疑,并提出另一种看法。这一另类观点,就是表达音乐也是一种技法:是音乐沟通之手法,是展现的艺术。有一种情形,就是虽然能够用乐器来娴熟准确地奏出乐谱上的音符,但在沟通手法方面的能力相形见肘;另一种情形,就是虽然对乐器的操控还欠火候,但在音乐沟通能力上却游刃有余。这就说明,这两种能力互不相干。最伟大的音乐演奏家在这两个方面都把握得炉火纯青。可惜的是,我们现在常听到的被冠以顶级音乐家的演奏,他们在音乐沟通手法方面的把握还远没到位。
作为“展现艺术”(就是亚里士多德在他的诗学第十九节中所说的“演讲”)的音乐沟通,是通过技术手段来处理音乐素材,从而使得普通的音乐爱好者得以享受和理解音乐内涵的手法。这一手法的目的,就是要用音乐来触及心灵,抖擞精神,提高思想从而深深地打动听众。这一手法所采用的技术手段共有十一种,都是用来把听得到的音乐信息,以普通人的大脑可以轻松地处理和理解的形式给展现出来。这些如此强而有力的技巧源于它们在人类认知方面的特征。事实上,这些技巧都是从日常那些我们用来表达自己思想和相互沟通的语言与感性经验中派生而来的。所有这些都是人类表达方式的自然体现。
这十一种认知与沟通技巧,可增进音乐沟通,但并不替代音乐本身。音乐其本身属精神范畴,这正是寓于艺术领域的属性。如果说这些技巧有负作用的话,那就是如果演奏者没有足够的音乐境界的话,这些技巧将会在听众内心深处强化这一演奏者境界匮乏的感觉。如果演奏者步入了音乐境界,这些技巧便能把这一境界给清晰地展示出来。真正的音乐表演艺术是融合了用乐器来精准地奏出乐谱上的音符及用音乐沟通手法来充分地显现演奏者的精神实质。
正如技巧一词所喻,这十一种技巧都是非常实用的工具而不是单纯的理论概念。为此,我们在对每个技巧的讨论之后,对其应用方式可能有歧义的地方,会附上一些如何应用该技巧的建议。应当把这些技巧运用到演奏中去,它们将会出色地完成所扮演的角色。否则的话,这些技巧能够烘托出的音乐效果就会从演奏中缺席。
音乐有两类:一类给人随意听听,一类让人用心倾听。这十一种技巧只适用于那些如同聆听人们语言交流时那样,得用心去倾听的音乐。对那些只给人们随意听听的音乐又如何呢?对于这类音乐,这些技巧是没有必要的。然而,即便如此,如果在演奏中融入了这些技巧,还是能够提高听众对听到的音乐之享受。
下面便是逐一对这十一种增进音乐沟通所需的技巧的讨论。讨论的秩序是对听众作用显著的技巧安排在前,其次向后排,由此类推。
1. 混觉技巧
混觉是指多个同时产生的感觉。大脑结构有同时感知多种感觉的功能。我们的视觉,嗅觉,和味觉,能使我们体验这些感官同时被刺激时所产生的感觉。一块简单的馅饼,其味道是对口味不同的水果,面粉,糖,盐,香料,鸡蛋,黄油等经过烹调而成。烹饪艺术的生命,在于人们对美食的热爱。每一道菜的甜,酸,苦,辣,咸等味都以不同比例交织在一起。我们假定舌头的各部位同时感觉不同的味道,这就产生味觉上的混觉效果。视觉和嗅觉都有类似的功能。观看莫奈最佳画作的喜悦,很大程度源于在一平方厘米面积上就可以看到所有的色彩。听觉也一样,需要类似的刺激。然而,现今的古典音乐是以完全剔除了混觉的方式来演奏的。这是由于有些演奏者根本就不知晓听觉是如何通过耳朵在大脑中形成的。
虽然耳朵在听到不同频率和音色时有不同的感觉,但当我们听多个音同时发出时,我们听到的是它们的合音而不是一个个的单音。当把音乐中的和弦作为一个合音来演奏时,人耳一般就只听到一个音。如果作曲家用四个音来写和弦,并且这四个音又被同时弹奏时,人耳听到的不是四个音而是一个音。虽然丰富,但仍然只有一个音。如果演奏者努力地争取以不完全绝对同步的方式来弹奏和弦中的每一个音,听众就轻而易举地听到所有的四个音,还外加它们的合音。这就能让听众听到总共五个音。
混觉技巧就是要把听到的音乐信息稍微不同步。刚够听者脑海能察觉到所有的音色,所有的音高,所有的旋律,所有的节奏,所有的细节,所有的和声,使这些音乐信息进入到一位音乐爱好者的意识当中。
人的大脑不费劲就能够同时接收多达六条完全独立的信息流,即使是象音乐信息那样的“本就该在一起”的信息流。一般的摇滚乐团都由六个声部组成就是一个证明例子。摇滚乐手非常清楚,即便乐谱没有注明,他们也要把各声部独特的感觉给传送出去。他们尤其在乎混觉效果,并下狠功在他们的演奏或表演中营造出混觉效果。否则的话,他们的演出收入将立马捉襟见肘。
一七六八年,雅各布.阿得隆(Jacob Adlung )在他的“管风琴演奏的音乐技巧”第二卷,第二十二章,第五百二十二段中对演奏羽键琴是这样说的:我们必须尽量多用琶音来演奏和弦,而不是同时敲击所有的音键,但也不是过慢地演奏每个音符,因为琴弦是会很快地停止振动的。莫扎特和肖邦也一再强调,千万不可两只手同时来。
将音乐中的音符“在时间上错开”的结果就会使得它们不同步。这种不同步性,作为一个整体没有消失的时候,能使各个音在某种程度上产生独立感。当每个音都干净利索地发出时,大脑是很容易感知到每一个音的。当我们听见两个或两个以上看似独立,却让我们有听见一个同步合音的感觉时,这种听觉上的感知就称为混觉。这是一个很奇特的悖论,就是当每个音都完全独立时,其音乐动机表面上看起来极其复杂,但事实上,这一音乐动机更容易被听众感受到和轻松地领会。其实,当各音的独立感不足时,就消弱了人们听觉上的感觉。混觉技巧有赖于演奏者的“听”、“跟”,及“奏”出多个乐声的能力。就是互为清晰独立,又总是相依相谐的声音。
当把乐谱中每个声部都像我们如今常听到的那样来演奏的话,也就是把每个声部都步调一致地来演奏,即便对一位有功力的音乐家来说,也很难分辨出各个声部来。这是因为大脑在读取以这种方式奏出的各声部时,听到的只有一个合音或其外围(低音部和高音部)中的一部分。只 要听到了这样一个合音,大脑就不再留意最低音和最高音之外的其它音了。的确,现在很少有音乐家能够即清晰又稳健地唱出两个声部来....这一能力上的遗缺源于把音乐演奏当成“敲键盘”的态度。具有讽刺意味的是,这一态度甚至殃及到了歌手。对任何多声部的音乐,演奏或演唱者只有刻意地把各声部都清晰地表达出来才能让听众感受到其中的乐感。音色和音量上的差异有助于产生更多的乐感,但这些措施绝对没有用混觉技巧,即便是那么一点点,来构筑各声部之间清晰明了的乐感那么来得管用。
此外,乔瓦尼.托西(Giovanni Tosi),在他一七三六年出版的题为“华丽歌声艺术”的唱法专著中,使用“跃动”这个术语来形容旋律声部在低音声部前后来回摆动(超前或滞后)的效果。他指出,“歌手应尽力要么在节拍前,要么在节拍后,但不可跟着节拍来唱”。真是令人惊讶 !!!现在几乎没有受过传统训练的歌手会如此来唱,因为他们这样唱的话,早就被不留情面地指责了。“美声唱法”是动听地歌唱,而不是好听的声音。托西说美声唱法的效果是“音乐上最美丽的效果之一”。他描述的“跃动”使混觉有种流畅和自由的感觉... 这效果确实动人。
有趣的是,巴赫在他的键盘乐器手稿中,就用托西所说“跃动”来谱写。仔细看他的手稿就会发现上方右手音符对下方左手音符要么超前、要么滞后。约60%是右手超前左手,40%是右手滞后左手。如果认为这是巴赫的粗心或是他不懂得上下对齐的话,那就大错特错了。在所有的作曲家当中,巴赫应该算是,尤其在音乐方面,最细心的一个。他的交响乐谱从来没有这样的问题。
傅克瑞(Forqueray)把他父亲的立式中提琴作品改编成羽管键琴曲,他在版本中特别注明,一定要照印刷谱的原样来演奏。在接下来的乐谱中,左右手音符上下根本没对齐,有些左手音符甚至整个出现在节线的中央。
朱利奥·卡奇尼(Giulio Caccini)在他一六一四年出版的“新音乐与其新的写作方式”()中写道:不经意,是通过在多个音上形成八分或十六分之一个“技术上不正确”的音程所获得的旋律上的优雅,技术上不正确是相对它们的节拍而言,从而将音乐旋律从某种狭窄单一和干涩枯燥的局限性中释放出来,使其变得愉快,自由和充满气息,就像平常演讲那样,口才和想象力能把演讲主题阐述得和蔼可亲、神彩飞扬。这是非常类似“跃动”的提法。
这是否意味着,通过“跃动”形式来运用“混觉”技巧是举手之劳?当然不是。必须不断地实践才能熟练地掌握。更难的是培养诠释和想象演奏中的所有声部的能力,无论是两个或五个声部,以便同时把每个声部都各自表达得非常清晰和独立。但这是可以做到的。我们曾经指导过一位管风琴学生,他原来不能演奏巴赫管风琴作品中的四声部合唱前奏曲,不到二十分钟,他便能把整个作品中的四个声部都清晰独立地唱出并演奏出来。因此,我们知道,所有的音乐家只要通过学习和实践都能做到这一点。此外,除非熟练地掌握这一技巧,否则的话,在巴赫的音乐中是听不到本应该听到的东西的。
请听下面一段音乐范例,是巴赫的三段式创意曲。听听每个声部是如何被清晰而独立地表现出来的,从而通过“跃动”形式来烘托出“混觉”的效果。
请点击这里来听上面提到的音乐范例
此外,可以花些精力找找其它录制版本,看看这些演奏者能否奏出这种各声部完全独立的感觉。
应用要点1:始终以一只手带动另一只手来演奏。两只手可以交替着带动另一只手来形成“跃动”。放弃两手同时来的方式。唯一的例外是当乐曲要结束时,各声部要合拍同步来告知大脑乐曲就要结束了。
应用要点2:尽可能清晰独立地奏出或唱出每个声部。避免将各声部搅和在一起而分不清颇此,否则的话,听众听你在和稀泥,也就会心不在焉,移神它处了。
应用要点3:总的来说,各声部的“跃动”可以是高声部引领低声部,也可以是低声部带动高声部。这种交替转换需要遵循音乐旋律和音乐结构的逻辑来进行。当高声部引领低声部时,乐感振奋向上,耳目清新;当低声部带动高声部时,乐感步履蹒跚, 渐行渐进。
2. 鼓腹状或起伏态技巧
鼓腹状,源于古希腊语(Entasis),有绷紧的含义。以一成不变的节奏来说话,只须几秒钟,便能导致听者大脑即刻麻木从而听不进所说的意思。人类大脑需要不间断的变化为条件来保持它的警觉性和注意力。动荡无序可使人进入警觉和专注的状态,而一成不变则会消除只有杂乱无章等因素才能造成的不适感。在稳定性所提供的可预见性,和无序性所激发的不可预见性与迫切期待感之间,进行紧张的切换,就会在精神上形成鼓腹般外张绷紧之状。与鼓腹状相反的是积瘀或静态状。人们在语言交流过程中能形成鼓腹状是各方思想切换交流的结果。思想交流的过程就是一个可预见性(己方)与不可预见性(他方)之间不断切换的过程。必须把这样一种过程融入到音乐中去。
在十七和十八世纪,法国人便明了了鼓腹状的重要性。我们认为,这就是法国音乐家所说的“异呐格”(法语Inégal)形式。这个词有起伏、凹凸、不等之意。现在对这个词的理解已经偏离了它的本意,以至于在演奏古典音乐时也强以目前通行的不差分毫的格式来进行。这就意味着把“异呐格”理解成了一种完全规律化的步履形式。然而,法国音乐家所说的“异呐格”应该是一种蹒跚跛行的步履形式。否则,他们会使用均等“异呐格”这样的短语。因此,我们必须对“异呐格”从它的本意角度来理解它。
从认知的角度来说,如果每个奏出的音符都是可预知的话便形成感知上的积瘀,也就缺失了紧张感,从而对随后奏出的音符失去兴趣。演奏者若不懂鼓腹状技巧,那结果将是致命的。因为几乎可以肯定,听众不会专注其演奏的音乐。亚里士多德在他的诗学(二十四节)中指出:事件雷同很快产生厌腻感。同样,任何人都可以观察到,只需要三个相同的音符并在它们之间嵌入两个相等的间隔,就能让大脑开始感觉无聊乏味。大脑在听这三个音符时,它会注意到第二个音符的出现与第一个音符一样,第三个音符又与第二和第一个音符一样,它便会预感第四个音符也将会同出一辙。只要这一预感成真,大脑便会因此产生厌倦从而进入休眠状态或移趣它处。如果发生这种情况,就如常见的那样,在演奏者的大脑中就不可避免地出现失误。听众呢,这些单调音乐环境下的失误变成了他们听到的音乐,真是一场灾难。这就是为什么那些不能学会避免这一失误的音乐家对现场演奏望而怯步。
演奏焦躁而缺乏活力,很大程度源于完全跟着节拍器来练习造成的。大脑在休眠状态下避免这一失误几乎是不可能的。当大脑在高度警觉状态下就大不一样。当这样的演奏被认为是音乐时,演奏变得麻木不仁就悄然地来临了。这就是为什么现在把一位当大脑在休眠状态下也能把正确的音符按准确的节奏来演奏的人称为音乐奇才。
完全搭拍的演奏肯定让大多听众都领略不到一部伟大作品的精髓所在,如此演奏的音乐也肯定让人听后便忘。这是音乐中的奴性,依赖节拍器之奴性的体现。与巴赫所说的完全相反,他在其“键盘乐器的演奏艺术”中写到:“应该尽量避免一切机械的东西和奴性。演奏是灵魂在陈述,而不是一只训练有素的鸟在跳”。鼓腹状技巧是由奴性通向自由之路,而且简单易行:将相同的音符用表达、感觉、声音等方面都不同的方式来演奏便可。
使用这一技巧存在一定的问题。最大的就是它听起来很混乱。大多数音乐家都极其讨厌这种效果。的确,这会让人不愉快。人们大都会感觉对听那些生硬吞吐、漫无边际的交谈是在浪费时间和精力。不过,对这些混乱及不搭拍的演奏,有其它的认知技巧可以用来建立其秩序和逻辑。它们就是下面将要介绍的:动机或语调技巧,句式或语音先导技巧,认同或默契技巧。当演奏中应用了混觉技巧与鼓腹状技巧时,它们就能让人感觉到音乐的逻辑、流畅及含义。第二个问题是让一位长期经受精准搭拍训练的音乐家来不搭拍演奏,还真是强人所难。要用好鼓腹状技巧,实际上还得多加实践。就如所有的东西一样,熟能生巧,进而臻于完美。不仅仅这样,我们还必须明白,这一完美是在听众心灵中激发起的感觉,而不是有板有眼地照着乐谱把每个音符按其节拍精准地演奏出来便可。音乐一定得让人感到它的完美。要做到这点,就得在其节拍上表现出不完美来。
那么,节拍又起到什么作用呢?我们认为节拍是用来感觉的,而不是用来听的。音乐的节拍,就如心脏的跳动一样,需要在速度上,随着音乐情感内容的波动而波动。也如说话时语气的阴阳顿挫,其强弱需要根据所表达的内涵起伏而起伏。只要音乐中的节拍、音长和强弱让人明显地感到缺欠变化,那它就会让人听上去既学究又迂腐。
在下面的音乐范例,你将会听到一段用混觉,跃动,鼓腹状或起伏态等技巧演奏的斯卡拉蒂奏鸣曲。请留意其中的音乐是多么地赏心悦耳。
请点击这里来听上面提到的音乐范例
应用要点:避免严格地跟着节拍来演奏。避免奏出三个以上同样的音。要知道,即使两个相同的音串在一起就能让听众分散他们的注意力。
3. 动机或语调技巧
动机或语调技巧,是用来把音乐和语音信息组合成较大的结构性单元,以便听者的大脑易于对其识别和记忆。语调可使演讲,或充满朝气,或死气沉沉。语调一成不变的讲话,即刻让人觉得乏味且难于专注。反之,语调切换频繁的话,人们毫不费劲就能专注其中。音乐也是一样的。我们说话时都用语调(动机)技巧来组织语言中的不规则元素。形象地说,动机或语调就如一道抛物线。卵型或椭圆形,也都是很典型的例子。这种形状让人感觉自然,也很容易接受。没有语调动机的语言是平淡、冷漠、丑陋且难于理解的。这也适用于音乐。
要在音乐中干净利索地体现丰富的动机,演奏者就得学习自然和模仿自然中的这些形态。此外,人们的讲话方式也都充满着这样的动机,无论是词组、句子或段落。在音乐演奏中,通过有意识并尽可能地融入圆润可人的动机,演奏者就能保证这样的效果让听众感到更自然,更舒适并充满爱意。
对语调平淡的讲话,大脑就好似对着一个无精打采、垂死郁闷、病入膏肓的人。同理,语调切换频繁的讲话,可使大脑觉得面对的是一位活跃奔放、活泼健康、体格健壮的人。对音乐来说也是一样的。人们通常都不喜欢与那些性格郁闷不乐、无精打采的人在一起。而是喜欢那些活泼可爱的人。这就是为什么人们都喜欢听那些让人有动感,充满表现力的音乐。即使它让人有伤感而悲痛的感觉。
应用要点:把音乐信息按易于接受的形式组织起来。了解动机和微动机的作用。
4. 句法或语音主导技巧
语音主导技巧源于语言中句法或语法之属性。请注意上面这个句子,若把所有的词都重新随意排列,又会怎样呢。比如:技巧句法主导源于属性语言中语音或语法之。重新排序后的句子不能表意,其原因就是每个词都互不相关联地等权排列。词序,或无序,是用来强化词与词之间的相关性的。就如前面这个例子,重新排序后词与词之间互不相联,其结果是既便认得所有的词汇,但就是不知所云。
人类的大脑需要有一个参照来对其感知的一切产生意义。任何缺乏参照的东西,在大脑中产生的感觉是无意义的。我们忽略这点会给我们的审美带来障碍。音乐中的逻辑基础,就是语言中语法的“参照”属性。这是使鼓腹状或起伏态技巧发挥显著作用所需的逻辑。
语言和音乐的感觉和含义,源于词汇或音符以恰当的方式组成句子或音乐动机,并且只有当组合的方式就语法结构来说更为“贴切”时,才能突显其所要表达的含义。就像句子中的每个词汇都以某种方式与句中主语相关一样,乐曲中的每一个音符都与其主音为参照。从这个观点出发,理解乐曲中的音程与和弦,是领会曲中音乐所要表达之含义的关键,就如在语言中,理解短语和从句是领会句子含义的关键一样。这就是语音主导技巧的核心。人的大脑是有“格式”的,无论是说话还是理解语言中的含意,都得通过语法和句子结构来进行。让大脑弥漫在毫无结构特征可言的音乐中,会迫使大脑对其无所适从。问题是,大脑对这样的音乐进行一旦感觉掉队,便干脆放弃跟进转而进入睡眠状态。我们自然要问:这难道就是音乐演奏所期望的结果吗?
语音主导技巧中最直观的要领,就是“连奏”(真正意义上的连奏是“在脑海中”进行的,而不仅仅停留在耳朵上),这种连奏给人有流淌如歌的音乐感觉(如歌般的感觉就如一位真正伟大的歌手“在歌唱”)。巴赫以他如歌般的演奏而著称。事实上,哥里本卡尔(弗克尔的学生)在1842年4月12日的一封信中写到:“巴赫本人,他的儿子以及弗克尔,他们演奏名曲时仿佛是在深情地吟诵,听起来就如一部每个声部都由一位伟大的艺术家在演唱的交响曲。所有好的唱法都用上了。音群归一、键音滑动,应有尽有。就连间隙休止都恰到好处。,,,巴赫的作品要以最高的艺术情怀来演奏。”
应用要点:将乐谱中每个声部都极尽表现力地唱出来,然后再完全象唱的一样,充满表现力地演奏出来。我们注意到,乐手的演奏几乎从来没有比他们的演唱更有表现力。假如他(她)的演唱方式让人厌烦的话,那么演奏的方式肯定也让人厌烦。正因为如此,对那些能够在乐器上奏出一个以上声部的演奏者,也必须能够将整个作品的每个声部都同步地唱出来。这真的很难!!!但要习以为常。搞音乐就得这样来。
令人难以置信或者不可思义的是,人们可以即刻说出他们感觉到的演奏中不流淌的那一瞬间。他们虽然并不能确切地说出到底是怎么回事。但是,他们通常会说音乐就在那一刻失去了活力。其实,大家都明白音乐应该如何响起来才能让人获得享受。演奏者应该把一群普普通通的人聚集起来,让他们来当听众并告诉演奏者如何以他们感觉享受的音乐方式来演奏。很快你就会发现,这帮听众是如此的在行和善于表达。关键是,一开始,对每一段音乐都尽可能地以完全规律的节奏,使人晕晕欲睡的方式来演奏。然后问听众,音乐怎样演奏才能让他们更来感觉?屋子里一定雀跃得炸锅,其热烈程度会让那些把听众当成被动者看待的演奏者大吃一惊的。如果每个演奏者都做一下这个实验,他或她才会对广大听众有真正的认识,才会真正地学会如何进行音乐沟通。我们这么说是因为我们本人就与那些自称不喜欢古典音乐的人做过这个实验。他们对所听到音乐的欣赏程度就看演奏是否按照他们的要求来进行。试试吧!
将谱中每个音符都象唱的一样充满表现力地演奏出来。就意味着你必须把整部作品的演唱或演奏都沉浸在你的想象之中,是那么的强烈,那么有信念,那么有激情。将细微之处都倾注到音乐中,当听众听到了,会为之倾倒。
5. 认同或默契技巧
认同或默契技巧的目的在于在听者与说者之间建立一种和谐的感觉。人们通过这一“技术性”表达方式来告知说者是否对其认同,以此来获得两者之间的和谐感。交流中如果缺少了这一技巧,就很难有效地实现沟通。当以接近口语的方式与速度来运用这一技巧时,便有立竿见影的效果。
从听者的角度来看,人类语言中的认同信息可以用来表达很多东西,,,,表示同意,跟得上推理,“请继续”,赞同一个观点,等等。认同信息的语音表达就是:嗯~嗯。第一个音下滑,第二个音上扬。值得一提的是,亚里士多德在他的诗学第十节中把认同定义为“从无知到有知的改变”。当听众在音乐中听到认同信息,就会有容易跟进音乐进行,以及与演奏者保持一致合拍的感觉。这也把音乐中的美感极其清晰地传给了听众。认同信息,或音群归一,是一种渠道, 通过它来让听众 对一首乐曲的进行从无感觉变成有感觉。这种感觉通常在精神层面上得以强化,因为它有让人豁然醒悟的感受。
非常有趣的是,在文前,即哥里本卡尔信中描述巴赫的那段提到的“音群归一”,在黎曼“音乐辞典”中的定义为:17世纪意大利风格的饰音演奏法,即上部或下部边音轻柔而快速地向主音汇聚归一。这正是认同信息的表达。换句话说,认同信息的表达就是音群归一的过程。然而,音群归一被现今的古典音乐家认为没有品位而不屑一顾。难道巴赫演奏他自己的作品能没有品位吗?我们怎么能这么认为呢?我们应该信任巴赫,相信人类的自然表达方式。
应用要点:音群归一的进行速度是其最重要的特征。如果速度太慢,听起来像一个琶音。如果速度太快,听起来就像一个装饰音。常用的适中速度就是你最自然地,把第二个音节为重音,连发:“啪 - 达”。如果你把“啪达”的重音放在第一个音节,就显得太慢了。如果你把“啪达”无轻重地连发,就显得太快了。当音乐要表达深沉凝重的感觉时,音群归一就以较慢的速度,更为明显的重音奏出。当音乐要表达生动活泼的感觉时,音群归一就以轻盈快捷的速度奏出。
巴赫的D小调小提琴组曲中的恰空舞曲,就是一个接一个音群归一的大串连。巴赫的意大利协奏曲也是以一个音群归一开始的。贝多芬的悲怆奏鸣曲由一个音群归一开始,几个过度音之后又是一个音群归一。贝多芬的第九交响曲,音群归一随处都是,简直多到听都听不过来。
6. 失真或俘捉注意力技巧
这一技巧的作用,就如任何道具一样,是表演者刻意用来吸引或转移听众注意力的。比如清清嗓门就是一件这样的道具。在那个特定的时刻,引起了注意。魔术师如果没有使用他们称之为分心术这一道具的话,他们的表演就永远不会成功。颤音或任何其它装饰音都是这样的道具。当歌手在唱一个长音时改变其元音素,这就是初始元音素的失真,就能在听众的脑海中形成对此长音更感兴趣的感觉。噪声或“杂音”是另一类失真。例如短挂音(或花音、倚音), 就是被添加到和弦中去的“杂音”。
一个失真技巧的例子, 就是歌手用撕裂的声音来烘托营造高度情绪化的效果。另一个例子是当一名小提琴手用超强力运弓来演奏一个特定的音时就造成该音失真,由此强化了对该音的“演奏”。滑音的传统定义,是指从一个音滑行到另一个音上去。其实这也是一种失真技巧。
亚里士多德在他的诗学(二十五节)中虽然没有用“污垢”,但他用“错误”一词来作这样的陈述:“错误可以是合理的,如果由此而抵达了艺术彼岸,...,并因此变得更加引人注目”。他补充道:“如果不违反诗歌艺术的独特格律也能做得一样好,甚至更好,那么错误就是不合理的:任何形式的错误都应该尽可能避免”。没有比这对诗律更清晰的训导了。失真技巧需要谨慎使用,以便其效果不因过度烂用而适得其反。对所有技巧都应如此。
然而,最典型的错误是毫无暇疵的演奏,会让听众有百无聊赖的感觉,...,真的是事与愿违。这里,我们不得不加一条注释,那就是,某些听众所喜欢的音乐演奏方式,是大多数人,包括我们在内,都觉得无聊和毫无意义的方式。这些听众的主要兴趣往往是一首乐曲的信息,乐曲结构如何,作曲家如何调配乐曲结构,直到乐曲的演奏,并从数学角度来看演奏是否严格地按乐谱来进行。对这类听众,最理想的演奏者就是一台电脑,因为它们至少在数据转换中不犯错误。既非数据转换,也非数据统计能够达到应当的艺术境界。绝大多数听众听音乐是要听音乐中的感觉,也就是感受一下伟大的作曲家在谱写这些作品时所要表达的音乐感觉。这是自然而真诚的感觉,免不了有一些混乱和不可预知的元素。企图消除这些元素是一种傲慢和无知的冲动。对一个自负比自然更懂得自然的人简直就是一种傲慢;没有艺术自然性创作能力,哪怕是那么一丁点,就自许为了解自然的人就是无知。即使这自然是我们这里探讨的音乐。
因此,要有清醒的认识,是演奏中有趣和不可预知的因素让演奏实现其完美,而不是完全让听众百无聊赖的那种完美。完美艺术的真正目的,是完美的感觉,并非其元素的完美。波提切利的油画,“维纳斯的诞生”,给人一种完美的感觉,源于他在画中使用了数量惊人的失真技巧。
应用要点:不要害怕奏出别扭的音来,尤其是你特别在乎它的音质时。丑与美是相对的。我们会觉得一件东西更漂亮当并摆在一旁的那件极丑陋。这就是诸如“美女与野兽”的故事之迷人之处。同理,没有非谐音的音乐是枯燥的。只有非谐音而无和谐音会让人感觉零乱刺耳。只有和谐音而无非谐音会让人感觉单调无味。
在学习掌握装饰音时,要明白,加入饰音就增强了那个时刻的音乐感。当其它一些更有效的技巧已经用上时,就得避免使用装饰音。每位伟大的作曲家对每样技巧都熟捻于心,把它们写入乐谱中时,演奏者就应该知道要求的是哪样技巧。当作曲家把装饰音写入乐谱时,就是那些被认为是重要的,也是必不可少的装饰音。然而,根据乐器,琴房音响和乐曲速度的情况,可以随意添加一定的装饰音。
激情是失真技巧的主要效果。即使是惆怅沮丧的情感也需要激情来表达其感受的强度。诗律赋予每位演奏者这样的自由,就是通过一切必要的手段来给听众营造一个强烈的感受。然而,这并不是要证明品位有多么的精湛细腻,而是演奏者的责任。也就是说,所做的一切,都始终专注于将音乐的完整性,而不是其演奏,深深地滞留在听众的心中。
7. 悠然自得或无所谓技巧
我们把这一技巧称为“无所谓”,是因为它诣在音乐中营造一个给人有耸耸肩膀那样感觉的片刻,或做个手势说:“不要太严肃啦,放松一下吧!别拿架子了,想怎样便怎样!开开心心,快快乐乐!”。换言之,对凡事都来个“无所谓”。
也就是说,当谱中音符上下对齐时,以其把音符完全同步地奏出,还不如把它们特意错开来,以不规则的或以让人诧异的方式来演奏以便营造一个不介意(无所谓)的效果。一朵玫瑰就是换个名称也同样香飘四溢。这一技巧无论你对它如何称呼,无所谓也好,缓慢的散板也好,爵士乐感也好,甚至开差走神或其它等等,它给音乐带来的,至关重要的,就是那种轻松散漫、无拘无束的快感。
焦虑会传染给所有观察它的人。演奏者若在意和担心犯错误,就会产生焦虑感,并通过肢体语言或声音,也就是音乐的表达途径,来传染给听众。身体紧张会产生焦虑,聚精汇神可驱散焦虑。精神压力会产生焦虑,心神放松可驱散焦虑。机械的,一成不变的演奏会产生焦虑,异呐格、不规则、逻辑的演奏可消除焦虑。过于在意毫无意义的细节会产生焦虑,姿势自然可消除焦虑。对准确性吹毛求疵会产生焦虑,专注内在、着眼目的可消除焦虑。让他人意见左右自己会产生焦虑,对他人意见坦然处之可消除焦虑。在乎自我会产生焦虑,信心和不在乎自我可消除焦虑。这就是“无所谓”的功用。当“无所谓”的气氛和态度热烈时,听众才能真正地获得享受。
应用要点:“无所谓”与我们所学的古典音乐演奏方法有冲突。应用这一技巧最重要的手段是我们的态度。在演奏中寻找一切机会来使用它。对每个乐段都试着把谱中各声部以正好半拍交错开来,看看是否有所改善。时而低音部带动高音部,时而高音部引领低音部。在土尔柯关于键盘乐器演奏的专著中有详细论述。
8. 步幅技巧
圣-兰伯特,在他作品的序言中写到,音乐的正常节奏就如一个人在行走。只要认真观察,我们就会发现每个人的行走节奏是不一样的。从此可以得出结论,圣-兰伯特只能是个白痴。然而,人们往往观察到地面是平的,就由此得出地球是平的结论。我们如果认真对待圣-兰伯特所持的观点,并试图探究他所观察到的东西,那么,一件有趣事就发生了。我们发现,他是正确的。也就是说,如果你观察所有行走的人,他们的行走节奏的确是不一样。但是,如果你只观察那些“要到某特定地方去”的人,他们都以相同的节奏在行走。无论男女老少,行走的节奏是一样的。唯一的条件是,他们健康强健,体无残缺。他们以每分钟116次的步幅来行走到他们要去的地方。其它的情况,人们都以不同的速度行走。
Walking at 116
这一观察之所以有趣,在于音乐就如思想,总要到某个特定的地方去。那个地方恰好就是思想或音乐的终止。更为有趣的是,就如人们赶路一般,大多数人在说话描述一些具体事情时,也是每分钟发116个音节。由于气质,个性,心情,或习惯,无论是说得太慢还是太快,都会被认为是令人无法忍受的愚钝或疯癫。太慢给人有懒惰或饱受精神痛苦的感觉,太快给人有面对一个三寸不烂之舌,把头都给你说晕去。
比说话每分钟发116个音节更有趣的是,其中的停顿,重音,词汇,交谈时的沉默间隔等每分钟出现72次。用1.618去除116,就得到72(准确地说是71.69...)!1.618就是我们熟知的“黄金” 分割比例。
Niel deGrasse Tyson
Larry King
Spanish
Hindi
Finnish
Arabic
Farsi
Romani
Navajo
任何一个认为这些观察结果太不可思议的人,只要把节拍器定在116拍,把它放在电视前,就可以发现真的是这么回事。然后再把节拍器定在72拍来看看其中的停顿,重音,词汇,沉默间隔等的速度。接着,把节拍器定在118或74,114或70拍来看看是否有相当的同步吻合。接下来就会知道我们所观察到的是正确的。
还有更有趣的是,另外一些节奏比配也是搭配的。比如58(对116为1:2, 既低八度音比配,译者注),144(对72为2:1,既高八度音比配,译者注),96(72乘4除3,3:4,既四度音比配,译者注 ),108(72除3乘2,3:2, 既五度音比配,译者注 ),87(116乘3除4,3:4),等。
从这些观察中可以得出结论,人类大脑对听到的信息是以一个精确的流程来处理的。这一流程进度会随着信息的含义,密度,重要性,强度及迫切性而变化。如果信息流的速度快于大脑对它的处理和理解节奏,我们就有不知所措的感觉。如果它的速度慢于大脑对它的处理和理解节奏,我们就有受阻,烦躁,恼怒或对传送方式打不起精神。
我们提出了大脑处理信息的速度与内容强度相关的机制。如果内容强度降低,但流动速度保持恒定,就给人有信息速度缓慢的感觉。因此,当内容强度降低时,其流动速度就得加快,以免让人感到无聊。反之,如果内容强度提高,流动速度不变的话,很快会让人感到不堪重负。所以,得把流动速度降低。这一正反对应机制是很容易理解的。音乐信息丰富时,进行速度要减缓,音乐信息匮乏时,进行速度得加快。此外,以上这些音乐沟通技巧,用到演奏中去时就得根据乐谱中的信息强度来调节音乐的进行速度。
因此,对现今古典音乐的演奏方式就可以提出客观的批评了,就是过于强调各声部的按部就班,同步并进。比如,对早期的音乐,被认为有必要用快节奏(由于缺乏展现的兴趣和意义),而对浪漫主义作品,又被认为必须用慢节奏来演奏,以便能借助一些惯用手法,来将教条化的演奏形成的所谓清冷场面“回暖”。这些手法,我们指的是:不断地颤音,对可预见和规律性的乐句和强度变化要么加速紧赶、要么减速蹒跚(要是以这些方式来说话的话,就会产生愚不可及,无比荒唐的效果)。第一种情形,就是对早期音乐,快速演奏可以避免音符间的空隙,这样听众的大脑就没机会去做无聊的想法。第二种情形,就是“回暖”手法,常用来减缓僵硬而无激情的演奏,其实是种分心术,演奏者希望将听众的注意力从缺乏想象力的演奏中转移掉。
音乐中对节奏的选择,需要考虑信息流量,因为它会随着信息的含义,密度,重要性及迫切性而变化,作品的情感因素同样得加以考虑。音乐中对节奏的选择,需要考虑信息流量,因为它会随着信息的含义,密度,重要性及迫切性而变化。作品的情感因素同样得加以考虑。节奏选择不当,偏慢了会产生压抑感,偏快了会产生内急感。然而,如果以上这些因素都不予以考虑的话,那么节奏的选择就得看运气了,如同买了菜后把它们放入烤箱,希望过一回就会出现美味佳肴。或者完全依赖天份,如果你有这样的天份当然可以,如果没有的话,就是另外一回事了。
应用要点:留意曲中有可能用116或72拍来演奏的部分,看听众有什么反应。这些拍子会让听众觉得音乐更为顺畅自然。有时这些拍子对演奏者来说极具挑战性,因为速度可能会远远快于演奏者技术发挥的能力。然而,许多作曲家在写作时已经把节拍因素考虑在内,节奏正确都能够正常技术发挥,有时甚至节奏明显偏快也没有问题。
9. 蒸发或神秘技巧
这一技巧在动态乐器上最为适用,如羽键琴,古钢琴,钢琴,提琴类,琵琶和吉它等等,甚至声乐。蒸发技巧就是乐句的音量逐渐减小,直到完全消失或蒸发。这一技巧用在电影中称为淡化。蒸发不知不觉地迫使乐句在听众脑海中随着音量的消失而结束。通过主观能动的演奏,可以这么说,演奏者能把听众引到他们自己筑成的道路上。音乐中多少给蒸发掉其实并不重要,即便是乐谱中的那么一丁点给蒸发掉,也会给听众不知不觉地留下强烈的印象。
从认知的角度来说,大脑有锁定知觉范围内的奇异信息的功能。这就是为什么,虽然眼睛感知光线,但是还是其中的阴影最为抢眼。对某个想法的轻描淡写或一味强调,是不会引人入胜的,很多技巧性作品都有这一通病。对某个想法仅仅蜻蜓点水或旁敲侧击,大脑是不会满足的,直到它获得所有的信息为止。对某个想法以清晰明了的观点加以阐述,大脑要么接受,要么拒绝。但无论如何,大脑都不会忽略这些信息。当信息不停地出现,就成为景观的一部分,难以引人注意。当声音以不可预知的方式强烈地盈缺波动,便能让听者更易对其分辨和感受内涵。无论是神秘的或者藏匿的东西对人们心灵都会激起一种渴求的热望。这就是精神境界的诱惑。大脑总是想要得不到的东西。
演奏中的暗化处理就能体现出蒸发技巧。听众会感受到这一技巧所产生的乐句渐行渐弱而远去与强烈的汇聚效果之间的映衬反差。
应用要点:把音乐中不是特别重要的时刻给“蒸发”掉,如乐句句尾或琶音和弦,否则会过于平淡。通过逐渐减小音量,直到最后一个音符,奏出的完全是个“空”音,从而稳住听众的注意力。这仅适用于现场演出,因为听众虽然听不到“空”音,但可以看到它的演奏。录音的话,这个尾音还得听得见,但要足够地弱以便听众感到“蒸发”的效果。诗意与直觉是最好的向导。
10. 时机把握或犹豫技巧
时机把握或犹豫技巧就是在演奏乐句中最重要的音符之前,犹豫片刻。换个说法,就是把该音符比谱中标出的值给续长或犹豫更长些时间。这一技巧是用来调控听众对演奏该音的期望,何时起,何时收。当演奏一个主干音时,稍做延迟,仿佛犹豫片刻,使听众有足够的时间来个期望,在精神上接受该音,接着乐音响起。这一技巧就这样得到了体现。喜剧演员也用这一技巧来甩包袱。当然,在包袱甩出之后便是轰堂的欢笑声。